WestminsterResearch http://www.westminster.ac.uk/research/westminsterresearch Islamists and democracy in Sudan: the role of Hasan Turabi, 1989-2001 Suhair Ahmed Salah Mohammed School of Social Sciences, Humanities and Languages This is an electronic version of a PhD thesis awarded by the University of Westminster. © The Author, 2012. This is an exact reproduction of the paper copy held by the University of Westminster library. The WestminsterResearch online digital archive at the University of Westminster aims to make the research output of the University available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the authors and/or copyright owners. Users are permitted to download and/or print one copy for non-commercial private study or research. Further distribution and any use of material from within this archive for profit-making enterprises or for commercial gain is strictly forbidden. Whilst further distribution of specific materials from within this archive is forbidden, you may freely distribute the URL of WestminsterResearch: (http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/). In case of abuse or copyright appearing without permission e-mail [email protected] ISLAMISTS AND DEMOCRACY IN SUDAN: THE ROLE OF HASAN TURABI 1989-2001 S. A. S. Mohammed PhD 2012 ISLAMISTS AND DEMOCRACY IN SUDAN: THE ROLE OF HASAN TURABI 1989-2001 SUHAIR AHMED SALAH MOHAMMED A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Westminster for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2012 Abstract This research assesses the experiment of the Islamic movement in Sudan following the 1989 coup. The main question that needs to be answered with regard to Turabi and the Islamists in Sudan is the gap between theory and practice. Sudan is a complex country, with a diverse population encompassing different tribes, languages, religions and cultures, all impacting on the country’s history and future. Consequently, the Islamic movement was influenced by the nature of this society. The Islamisc movement in Sudan was established in the 1940s, linked to the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, and to revivalists in the 19th and 20th centuries, such as al- Afghani, Mohammed ‘Abdu, Mawdudi, Hasan al-Turabi and Rashid al-Ghannouchi. The research assesses the theories of Turabi in Shura, democracy and issues of government. It critically evaluates the concepts of Tawhīd, the state in Islam, and human rights, minorities, women, etc., in the Islamic state. This research established that gaps existed between the theory and practice of Turabi and the Islamists in Sudan. Their military coup represents the first violation of democracy. They possessed a clear human rights’ vision, but in practice violated them from the early days of the coup. They developed mature theories on power sharing, justice and equality, but have monopolised power since 1989. Shura was implemented in the movement institutions, but remains to be enhanced in the State. In the first decade, Islamist succeeded in developing the economic sector, by exploring for oil, and establishing a free market, but with no mechanisms to mitigate its negative side-effects. In society, significant laws were developed, in favour of women, education, and media. One may argue that Islamists need to take further steps towards Shura and democracy on the practical level, and establish proper mechanisms. i Acknowledgements I would like to express my gratitude to Dr Abdelwahab el-Affendi, the programme Director of Studies, who not only served as my supervisor, but also encouraged and challenged me throughout. He gave me the time and space I needed, and provided the necessary feedback to improve the study in all its stages. I would also like to thank Dr Maria Holt, my co-supervisor, for her constant support, guidance and encouragement. Throughout the thesis writing up, she showed endless enthusiasm and patience. Dr el- Affendi and Dr Holt provided me generously with their experience and expertise, which will have great impact on my future academic career. Thank you both for all the time you spent with me, and the great help in finalising my dissertation. I would like to thank Dr Dibyesh Anand, the independent assessor, for his constructive and valuable comments in the first year assessment. I am sincerely and profoundly grateful to the interviewee, Dr Hasan Abdallah al-Turabi, for his time and openness, and to Mr el-Mahboub Abdelsalam for his sincere advice. He gave me the time I needed to ask my questions at all the stages of my dissertation, and I benefited greatly from his knowledge in the field. Sheikh Rashid al-Ghannouchi, Abdel Moneim Abu el-Fotouh, Dr Elamein Mohammed Osman and Dr Mostafa Osman Ismail, all were patient and willing to answer my questions, and guided me to valuable resources and important documents. Many thanks also to the Mo Ibrahim foundation. There are numerous academic colleagues, who helped along the way, namely Abdallah A. al-Jack, Dr Osama Zain al-Abdin, Dr Ikram Mohammed Salih, Dr Adam Mohammed Ahmed, Dr Najwa Abdellatif, Dr Limyaa Abdelghaffar, Dr Gaffar Abdallah, and Dr Adli Hawwari. They helped me in all the stages of data collection and group discussions, and were supportive and encouraging all the time. ii I am also deeply indebted to my family in Sudan, for their unconditional love and support, especially my father Ahmed Salah, brothers and sisters for encouraging my academic journey. iii Table of Contents ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................................... II TABLE OF CONTENTS .........................................................................................................................IV ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................. X GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................................................ XII AUTHOR’S DECLARATION ............................................................................................................. XIV INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 1 ISLAMISM: DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPTS ................................................................................................ 1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................. 7 METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................................... 8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................................... 11 TRANSLITERATION ................................................................................................................................. 12 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................................... 12 CHAPTER 1: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ................................................................................... 17 SECTION 1. GEOGRAPHIC, HISTORICAL AND DEMOGRAPHIC CONTEXT .................................................. 17 1.1 Sudan’s Historical and Geographical Context ........................................................................... 17 1.2 The Ansar and Khatmiyya: Sufis and political parties ............................................................... 20 SECTION 2: ISLAMIC MOVEMENT’S HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ............................................................ 22 2.1 Establishment of the Islamic Movement in Sudan: 1946-1955 ................................................... 22 2.1.1 The Islamic movement in Sudan: the three trends ................................................................... 24 2.2 Eid Conference 1954 .................................................................................................................. 28 2.3 The Movement Organisation and Ideology ................................................................................. 31 iv SECTION 3. EMERGENCE OF ISLAMIC FRONT FOR THE CONSTITUTION (IFC) 1956-1959 ........................ 32 3.1 The establishment of the Islamic Front for the Constitution (IFC)............................................. 32 3.2 The Development of the Movement during Abboud’s Regime 1959-1964 .................................. 34 SECTION 4. THE MOVEMENT AND THE SECOND DEMOCRACY 1964-1969 .............................................. 36 SECTION 5. MAY COUP .......................................................................................................................... 39 5.1 The Ideology of the Coup ............................................................................................................ 39 5.2 National Islamic Front (NIF) ..................................................................................................... 42 SECTION 6. THE MOVEMENT AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS ............................................................ 46 6.1 Historical Context ....................................................................................................................... 46 6.2 Relations