Ecological Engineering Design Ecological Engineering Design Restoring and Conserving Ecosystem Services Marty D. Matlock and Robert A. Morgan John Wiley & Sons, Inc. This book is printed on acid-free paper. Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com. 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ISBN 978-0-470-34514-6 (hardback); ISBN 978-0-470-87574-2 (ebk); ISBN 978-0-470-87575-9 (ebk); ISBN 978-0-470-87576-6 (ebk); ISBN 978-0-470-95167-5 (ebk); ISBN 978-0-470-95191-0 (ebk); ISBN 978-0-470-94999-3 (ebk) 1. Ecological engineering. 2. Sustainable design. 3. Environmental engineering. I. Morgan, Robert A. II. Title. GE350.M38 2010 628–dc22 2010030991 Printed in the United States of America 10987654321 Contents 1. SUSTAINABLE HUMAN-DOMINATED ECOSYSTEMS / 1 Introduction / 1 Axioms of Ecological Engineering / 2 Sustainable Design Principles / 3 Global Population Dynamics—The Forcing Function / 4 Global Fertility Rate Trajectories / 5 Changing Global Demographics / 6 Human-Dominated Earth / 8 Increasing Demands for Ecosystem Services / 8 Human Impacts through Urbanization / 9 Land Use Change / 11 Agricultural Production / 13 Water Resource Demands / 14 Lessons from the First Green Revolution / 16 Structure of This Book / 17 References / 18 2. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES / 22 Introduction / 22 Origin of Ecosystem Services / 22 The Value of Ecosystem Services / 24 Classifying Ecosystem Services / 24 The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment / 28 Why Biodiversity Matters / 35 Ecosystem Services, Land Use, and Biodiversity / 37 Further Readings / 39 References / 39 v vi Contents 3. DESIGNING ECOSYSTEM SERVICES / 42 Design Challenges and Needs / 42 Current Design Methods Deficiencies / 43 Ecosystem Services Design Ethics / 46 Legitimacy and the Design Process / 48 The Design Process / 50 Synthesis / 53 The Ecotechnology Design Team / 54 Defining the Appropriate Management Structure / 55 Analysis and Deliberation / 56 Mapping Ecosystem Services Processes / 56 Defining Priorities / 58 Setting Design Goals / 59 Implementing Design Goals / 60 Assessing Ecosystem Services Design / 61 Further Readings / 62 References / 62 4. DEFINING PLACE: BIOMES AND ECOREGIONS / 64 Introduction / 64 Biogeographical Realms / 65 Biomes / 66 Ecoregions / 72 Bailey’s Ecoregions / 72 Omernik’s Ecoregions / 73 Olson’s Ecoregions / 76 Other Land Classification Systems / 78 Climate Change and Ecoregions / 79 Land Use Change and Ecoregions / 80 References / 81 5. DEFINING PLACE: THE WATERSHED / 83 Introduction / 83 Watershed Services / 84 Watershed Characteristics: Physical Description / 84 Watershed Hydrologic Characteristics / 92 Watershed Water Quality Characteristics / 99 Contents vii Watershed Human Impacts / 100 Summary of Watershed Characteristics / 103 Further Readings / 104 References / 104 6. DEFINING PLACE: THE SITE / 106 Introduction / 106 Physical Characterization / 106 Hydrological Characterization / 107 Biological Characterization / 119 Climatological Characterization / 124 Summary / 125 Further Readings / 127 References / 127 7. DEFINING PLACE: SOILS AS A LIVING ORGANISM / 129 Introduction / 129 Morphology / 130 Soil Physics / 136 Soil Fertility / 139 Soil Ecology / 141 Summary / 143 Further Readings / 143 References / 144 8. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY FOR DESIGN / 145 Introduction / 145 Fundamental Principles of Ecology / 148 Organisms and Place / 149 Adaptation Processes / 150 Responses to Environmental Variation / 152 Landforms and Ecosystem Function / 154 Patches, Corridors, and Connectivity / 154 Ecotones and Edge Effects / 156 Landform Metrics / 158 Further Readings / 160 References / 160 viii Contents 9. ENERGY AND MASS FLOW THROUGH ECOSYSTEMS / 162 Introduction / 162 Energy Flow through Ecosystems / 164 Energy Balance in the Biosphere / 164 Emergy as a Unit of Analysis / 168 Trophic Levels / 169 Energy Density / 169 Primary Production / 170 Designing Trophic Levels / 173 Mass Flow through Ecosystems / 175 Hydrologic Cycle / 176 Carbon Cycle / 178 Nitrogen Cycle / 181 Phosphorus Cycle / 183 References / 184 10. DESIGNING COMMUNITY STRUCTURE / 187 Introduction / 187 Hierarchical Processes / 187 Types of Restoration Design / 188 Biotic Interactions / 190 Community Interactions / 190 Competition / 191 Consumption / 192 Commensalism / 192 Metapopulations / 193 Species-Area Relationship / 193 Minimum Viable Populations / 194 Minimum Viable Metapopulations / 195 Regional Processes / 195 Species Pool / 196 Dispersal / 196 Colonization Sequence / 197 Dispersion / 197 Environmental and Habitat Impacts / 198 Abiotic Filters / 198 Disturbance Regimes / 199 Habitat Heterogeneity / 200 References / 201 Contents ix 11. ECOSYSTEM CONTROL AND FEEDBACK SYSTEMS / 202 Introduction / 202 Population Control Processes / 204 Reproductive Strategies / 204 Survivorship / 205 Growth Rates / 206 Community Control Processes / 207 Plants and Nutrients / 208 Resource Competition / 209 Feedback Processes / 210 Atmospheric Feedback Loops / 211 Soil Feedback Loops / 212 Consumer Feedback Loops / 214 Designing Ecosystem Complexity / 215 Self-Organization / 217 References / 220 12. STREAM RESTORATION DESIGN / 222 Introduction / 222 Assessment / 223 Hydrology / 227 Sedimentology / 233 Geomorphology / 235 Habitat / 238 Connectivity / 240 Riparian Corridor / 241 Construction / 242 Summary / 242 Further Readings / 243 References / 243 13. DESIGNING ECOSYSTEM SERVICES BY LANDFORM / 245 Introduction / 245 Ecosystem Services Design Process / 245 Agricultural Lands / 247 Forests / 251 Grasslands / 253 Wetlands / 256 x Contents Urban Areas / 260 References / 265 14. GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE DESIGN / 267 Introduction / 267 The Green Infrastructure Network / 268 Green Infrastructure Planning / 271 The Tools of Green Infrastructure / 272 Scale Matters / 275 The Sustainable Cities Initiative / 275 United Nations World Urban Forum / 276 ICLEI: Local Governments for Sustainability / 278 Summary / 280 Further Readings / 281 References / 281 15. LOW IMPACT DEVELOPMENT / 282 Introduction / 282 Hydrology / 284 Initial Steps / 287 Minimizing Change to Pre-development CN / 287 Maintaining or Increasing tc / 289 Integrated Management Practices / 290 Bioretention / 290 Dry Wells / 291 Rain Barrels and Cisterns / 291 Vegetated or Grassed Swales / 292 Infiltration Trenches / 292 Tree Box Filters / 292 Vegetated or Green Roofs / 293 Filter Strips / 293 Rain Gardens / 293 Water Quality / 294 Minimization / 295 Natural Filtration / 295 Constructed Filtration / 296 Evaporation / 296 Pollution Prevention / 296 Hydrologic Analysis / 296 Refugia / 300 Contents xi Ecosystem System Services Assessment/Design / 301 Step 1: Define Project Objectives and Goals / 301 Step 2: Perform Site Evaluation and Analysis / 302 Step 3: Develop LID Control Strategies / 302 Step 4: Design LID Site or Master Plan / 303 Step 5: Develop Operation and Maintenance Procedures / 304 Summary / 304 Further Readings / 305 References / 306 16. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES DESIGN IN AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY / 307 Introduction / 307 Agricultural Sustainability Indicators / 308 Summary of Sustainability Indicators / 309 Environmental Indicators for Soil / 309 Environmental Indicators for Water / 312 Environmental Indicators for Habitat / 313 Social and Cultural Indicators / 314 Economic Indicators