SEDIMENTOLOGICAL ADVANCES CONCERNING THE ELOCCULATIQN AND ZOOPLANKTON PELLETIZATION OF SUSPENDED SEDIMENT IN HOWE SOUND, BRITISH COLUMBIA; A FJORD RECEIVING GLACIAL MELTWATER by JAMES PATRICK MICHAEL SYVITSKI B.Sc. Lakehead University, 1974 H.B.Sc. Lakehead University, 1975 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Department of Geological Sciences and the Institute of Oceanography We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA September, 1978 copyright J.P.M. Syvitski, 1978 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by his representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of q(CJ&-@ The University of British Columbia 2075 Wesbrook Place Vancouver, Canada V6T 1WS Date ii Foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds -R.W. Emerson iii ABSTRACT The study of suspended sediment provides insights into the transport and accumulation of sediment in depositional basins. Past investigations have suffered, however, from a lack of methodology that can deal with the low concentrations of suspended sediment. The theory and method of three techniques to be used in the analysis of suspended sediment have been out• lined. 1) VSA, provides a rapid, accurate and precise method of determining grain size distributions of low weight samples. The method is based on the solution to a set of equations that discretely define the increasing volume of a homogeneous sediment sample settling in an enclosed volume of water. The results are in terms of sedimentation diameters, a hydrodynamically sensitive property. 2) The Ag filter mount provides a fast technique for a low sample weight random oriented mount to be used in quantitative XRD analysis. The method has excellent precision and does not fractionate the mineral component due to their settling velocity. 3) Suspended sediment collectors have been used to measure the downward flux of sediment in the fjord environment. The traps have also provided a means to calculate the natural settling velocity of flocculated or otherwise enhanced particle settlement. Laboratory and field studies have dealt with the interaction of zooplankton with suspended sediment. Marine zooplankton ingest suspended sediment at a rate dependent on sediment concentration and mineralogy. Ingested mineral particles undergo chemical and mineral transformations which are functions of mineralogy, cation exchange capacity and residence iv time in the digestive tract. Zooplankton fecal pellets have a much larger settling velocity than their component particles. This increased settling rate allows clay to be deposited where the hydrodynamic nature of the environment would only allow coarse silt to fine sand deposition. Glacial flour (feldspar, quartz, trioctahedral mica, chlorite, amphibole, tourmaline, and vermiculite) enters the surface-layer of the Howe Sound fjord as a sediment plume which moves quickly down inlet while slowly mixing with the marine water. Although flocculation occurs in the lower brackish water of the surface-layer, mixing and diffusion are the dominant means for sediment to enter the lower-marine-water. Once in the lower-marine-water, zooplankton pelletization and biologic agglomeration of inorganic floccules takes place. These processes that enhance the individual particle settlement, generate a fast response time between the surface-layer and the lower-marine-layer in terms of sedimentation of particulate matter. Settling velocities of particles less than 1 ym have been enhanced over 1400 times. Size distributions of sediment deposited on the sea-bed are a func• tion of variable multimodal and/or non log-normal size distributions from sub-laminae falling through the water column. The increase in deviation away from log-normality down inlet, for size distributions of both suspen• ded and deposited sediment, is an artifact of the size analytical method. V TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ABSTRACT iii TABLE OF CONTENTS v LIST OF TABLES x LIST OF FIGURES xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xv INTRODUCTION 1 PAPER #1: A DISCUSSION OF GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION USING LOG-PROBABILITY 4 PLOTS Abstract 4 Introduction 5 Problem of Definitions 5 Hydromechanical Processes 7 Sediment Flocculation Problem 17 Competency Problem 17 Graphic Display of Log-probability Frequency Plots 18 True diameter curve effects 18 The probability distribution assumption 19 Population probabilities 20 Truncated distribution VS Mixed distributions 23 Resolution of mixed frequency distributions into 25 normal (or log-normal) components Concluding Remarks 25 Acknowledgement 27 References 28 vi PAGE PAPER #2: VSA; A NEW FAST SIZE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE FOR LOW SAMPLE 30 WEIGHT BASED ON STOKES' SETTLING VELOCITY Abstract 30 Introduction 31 Theory of Method 33 Check of Theory 35 Theoretical Example of a Four-Component System 37 Relation of Volume to Weight 40 Fulfillment of the Assumptions of Stokes' Law (1851) 41 Methodology 42 Calculation of the Input for the Computer Analysis 46 Calculation of Sediment Density 47 VSA Accuracy 48 Conclusion 51 Acknowledgement 56 References 57 PAPER //3: A FAST TECHNIQUE FOR A LOW SAMPLE WEIGHT RANDOM ORIENTED 60 MOUNT TO BE USED IN QUANTITATIVE XRD ANALYSIS Abstract 60 Introduction 61 Methods 61 The Ag filter mounting technique 61 Materials 63 Testing scheme 63 Diffractogram interpretation 64 Results 64 Discussion and Summary 67 Acknowledgements 72 References 73 vii PAGE PAPER #4: THEORY, UTILIZATION AND RELIABILITY OF SUSPENDED SEDIMENT 74 COLLECTORS IN LAKES AND OCEANS Abstract 74 Introduction and Acknowledgement 75 Sediment Trap Utility 76 Theory of Sedimentation Rates 77 Design and Testing of Traps 81 Accuracy of Trap Collection 96 Geologic Implications from Sediment Trap Results 99 Conclusion 103 References 106 PAPER #5: INTERACTION OF ZOOPLANKTON WITH SUSPENDED SEDIMENT HO Abstract 110 Introduction 111 Materials and Methods 113 Results 117 Discussion 127 Clay mineral transformations 127 Inorganic particle uptake 136 Pellet settling rate 137 Conclusion and Acknowledgement 138 References 140 PAPER #6: FLOCCULATION, AGGLOMERATION, AND ZOOPLANKTON PELLETIZATION 144 OF SUSPENDED SEDIMENT IN A FJORD RECEIVING GLACIAL MELT- WATER Abstract 144 Introduction 145 viii PAGE Methods 147 Field procedure 147 Preliminary testing of sediment trap 149 Laboratory procedure 149 Size analytical procedure 150 Scanning electron microscopic analysis 151 X-radiation procedure 151 Results 152 Some physical oceanographic observations 152 Particulate matter in Howe Sound water 155 Preliminary testing of sediment trap 165 Sedimentation rates 165 Sediment size distributions 169 Description of marine particles 174 Analysis of suspended load discharge data 192 Discussion 192 Sediment-plume and oceanography 192 Sedimentation rates 194 Deep water sand flow 195 Size distribution characteristics 196 In situ settling velocity of fjord suspensates . 197 Enhancement processes of particle settling 200 Clay mineralogy 206 Summary and Conclusion 208 Acknowledgements 213 References 214 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 220 ix PAGE APPENDIX #1: COMPUTER PROGRAM (FORTRAN) FOR VSA METHOD 223 OUTPUT EXAMPLE 228 APPENDIX #2: FIELD DATA BASE ON HOWE SOUND SEDIMENTS 230 Sediment trap data 231 Suspended sediment data 246 Size analytical data 266 XRD data ' 287 Current data 288 X LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1: Data from Glaister and Nelson's curves 1: Example of a data sheet of VSA method 2: Ax2 evaluation between before and after density corrected size distributions 3: The x2 test for acceptance between size distributions produced from the VSA and Sedigraph methods 4: The x2 test for acceptance between two runs of the same sample 1: Results from precision testing of mount methods 1: Table of precision of past research 2: Quantitative values in the calculation of in situ settling velocity of marine particles 1: Variation in the egestion rate of Tigriopus for various mineral suspensions 2: Elemental ratios indicating chemical increases or decreases of the pellet residues compared to the clay standards 3: Comparison of mineral-bearing pellet settling rates and mean particle settling rates and their equivalent spherical sedimentation diameter 4: Pellet flux, pellet and total sedimentation rate deduced from suspended sediment traps positioned in Howe Sound 1: Mean daily temperature of Om, htm and bottom water 2: Summary statistics on particulate concentrations in Howe Sound water 3: Sedimentation rates and grain size measures 4: Mineralogy of suspended and sea-bed sediments 5: Quantitative values in the calculation of in situ settling velocity of marine particles xi PAGE 6: Summary of enhancement calculations on particle settling 203 velocity 7: Summary of the linear relationships between field parameters 211 disclosed in this study Appendix #2: Sediment trap data tables (14) 231 Precision of trap data table (1) 245 Suspended sediment data tables (20) 246 Size analytical data tables (12) 266 XRD data table (1) 287 Current data table (4) 288 xii LIST OF FIGURES PAGE PAPER # FIGURE 1 1: Characteristic path of a salting grain 9 2: Size distribution interpretation