THE RECOVERY OF FUNCTIONAL DIVERSITY WITH RESTORATION: A META-ANALYSIS _____________________________________________ A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Ecology in the University of Canterbury by Sophie Adelaide Hale University of Canterbury 2018 Contents List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. 1 List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ 3 Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... 4 Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 6 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 8 Methods.................................................................................................................................... 13 Study selection ..................................................................................................................... 13 Data extraction and collection – species and site data ......................................................... 17 Data extraction and collection - trait data ............................................................................ 19 Functional diversity calculations .......................................................................................... 24 Species diversity calculations............................................................................................... 26 Data analysis and design ...................................................................................................... 26 Model selection .................................................................................................................... 27 Model structure .................................................................................................................... 28 Results ...................................................................................................................................... 36 1) Is there a general relationship between species diversity and functional diversity? i.e. can species diversity serve as a surrogate for functional diversity in restoration monitoring? .. 36 2) Does the observed relationship between species and functional diversity differ from what can be expected by chance alone? i.e. as species richness increases, do species tend to be increasingly similar or dissimilar in their traits? ............................................................. 39 3) Does restoration increase species diversity relative to negative controls, and does this increase with time? ............................................................................................................... 39 4) Does restoration increase functional diversity relative to negative controls, and does this effect change with time? ...................................................................................................... 42 5) Does the effect of restoration on functional diversity exceed that expected by chance given species richness?......................................................................................................... 48 6) Does the functional diversity of restored sites progress towards that of positive control sites over time, and is this change faster than in negative controls? .................................... 48 Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 51 Space-for-time data report positive effects of restoration on species and functional diversity, but caveats apply .................................................................................................. 51 Longitudinal data did not exhibit improvements in restored sites beyond changes exhibited by negative control sites ....................................................................................................... 54 Other factors may impede restoration gains ......................................................................... 56 In general, active restoration measures were no better than passive restoration .................. 57 Species-based measures may be sufficient proxies for functional diversity ........................ 58 Further caveats ..................................................................................................................... 60 Implications for future restoration practice .......................................................................... 62 Literature Cited ........................................................................................................................ 67 Appendix A. Study details ....................................................................................................... 88 Ants ...................................................................................................................................... 88 Birds ..................................................................................................................................... 91 Fish ....................................................................................................................................... 94 Macroinvertebrates ............................................................................................................... 99 Plants .................................................................................................................................. 104 Reptiles ............................................................................................................................... 106 Appendix B. Species traits by taxa ........................................................................................ 112 Appendix C. Excluded studies ............................................................................................... 121 Appendix D. Model output by focal question ........................................................................ 128 List of Tables Table 1. The resolution of trait data available for different taxonomic groups. ...................... 24 Table S1. Summary of taxa lists in ant studies and the proportion of trait data estimated (and aggregated) at higher taxonomic levels than originally reported. ............................................ 89 Table S2. Summary of taxa lists in bird studies and the proportion of trait data estimated at higher taxonomic levels than originally reported. ................................................................... 92 Table S3. Summary of taxa lists in fish studies and the proportion of trait data estimated at higher taxonomic levels than originally reported. ................................................................... 95 Table S4. Summary of taxa lists in macroinvertebrate studies and the proportion of trait data estimated (and aggregated) at higher taxonomic levels than originally reported. ................. 100 Table S5. Summary of taxa lists in plant studies and the proportion of trait data estimated at higher taxonomic levels than originally reported. ................................................................. 104 Table S6. Summary of taxa lists in reptile studies and the proportion of trait data estimated (and aggregated) at higher taxonomic levels than originally reported. ................................. 107 Table S7. Sources of trait data for each species in Glor et al. (2001). ................................... 109 Table S8. Sources of trait data for each species in Pawar et al. (2004). ................................ 110 Table S9. Traits collected for all macroinvertebrate taxa for the calculation of functional diversity metrics. .................................................................................................................... 112 Table S10. Traits collected for all plant taxa for the calculation of functional diversity metrics. ................................................................................................................................... 113 Table S11. Traits collected for all ant taxa for the calculation of functional diversity metrics. ................................................................................................................................................ 114 Table S12. Traits collected for all reptile taxa for the calculation of functional diversity metrics. ................................................................................................................................... 114 Table S13. Traits collected for all bird taxa for the calculation of functional diversity metrics. ................................................................................................................................................ 115 Table S14. Traits collected for all fish taxa for the calculation of functional diversity metrics. ................................................................................................................................................ 118 Table S15. Studies excluded from my meta-analysis (149), including details of focal taxonomic group(s), location of study and reason for exclusion. .........................................