Experimental Phonetics 2 LONGMAN LINGUISTICS LIBRARY 3 LONGMAN LINGUISTICS LIBRARY General editors R. H. ROBINS, University of London GEOFFREY HORROCKS, University of Cambridge DAVID DENISON, University of Manchester For a complete list of books in the series, see pages vii & viii 4 5 Experimental Phonetics Katrina Hayward 6 7 First published 2000 by Pearson Education Limited Published 2013 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Copyright © 2000, Taylor & Francis. The right of Katrina Hayward to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be 8 mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. ISBN 13: 978-0-582-29137-9 (pbk) British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress Set by 35 in 10/12pt Times 9 10 to the memory of Eugénie Henderson 11 Longman Linguistics Library General Editors: R. H. ROBINS University of London GEOFFREY HORROCKS University of Cambridge DAVID DENISON University of Manchester Introduction to Text Linguistics ROBERT DE BEAUGRANDE and WOLFGANG DRESSLER Psycholinguistics Language, Mind and World DANNY D. STEINBERG Principles of Pragmatics GEOFFREY N. LEECH The English Verb Second edition F. R. PALMER Pidgin and Creole Languages SUZANNE ROMAINE 12 General Linguistics An Introductory Survey Fourth edition R. H. ROBINS Generative and Non-linear Phonology JACQUES DURAND Modality and the English Modals Second edition F. R. PALMER Dialects of English Studies in Grammatical Variation PETER TRUDGILL and J. K. CHAMBERS (eds) An Introduction to Bilingualism CHARLOTTE HOFFMANN Linguistic Theory The Discourse of Fundamental Works ROBERT DE BEAUGRANDE A History of American English J. L. DILLARD Aspect in the English Verb Process and Result in Language YISHAI TOBIN The Meaning of Syntax A Study in the Adjectives of English CONNOR FERRIS 13 Latin American Spanish JOHN LIPSKI A Linguistic History of Italian MARTIN MAIDEN The History of Linguistics All edited by GIULIO LEPSCHY Volume I: The Eastern Traditions of Linguistics Volume II: Classical and Medieval Linguistics Volume III: Renaissance and Early Modern Linguistics Volume IV: Nineteenth Century Linguistics ANNA MORPURGO DAVIES To come: Volume V: The Twentieth Century Modern Arabic Structures, Functions and Varieties CLIVE HOLES Frontiers of Phonology Atoms, Structures and Derivations JACQUES DURAND and FRANCIS KATAMBA (eds) 14 An Introduction to the Celtic Languages PAUL RUSSELL Causatives and Causation A Universal-typological perspective JAE JUNG SONG A Short History of Linguistics Fourth edition R. H. ROBINS Grammar and Grammarians in the Early Middle Ages VIVIEN LAW Greek A History of the Language and its Speakers GEOFFREY HORROCKS The New Comparative Syntax LILIANE HAEGEMAN (ed.) The Structure and History of Japanese LONE TAKEUCHI The Acquisition of Syntax Studies in Comparative Developmental Linguistics MARC-ARIEL FRIEDEMANN and LUIGI RIZZI (eds) Explaining Language Change: An Evolutionary Approach WILLIAM CROFT 15 Experimental Phonetics KATRINA HAYWARD 16 Author's acknowledgements Publisher's acknowledgements Introduction: impressionistic phonetics and experimental 1 phonetics 1.1 What is experimental phonetics? 1.2 Impressionistic phonetics 1.2.1 Assumptions 1.2.2 Methodology 1.3 The scope of experimental phonetics 1.4 The representation of speech sounds 1.4.1 Segments and phonemes 1.4.2 Mental representations 1.5 Experimental phonetics and the structure of sound systems 1.6 The structure and scope of this book 1.7 Further reading Notes 2 The nature of sound 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Sound waves 2.2.1 Describing a simple sound wave 2.2.2 From movements to pressures 2.2.3 Sound waves in space 2.2.4 Some definitions 2.3 Types of sound waves 2.4 The structure of sound waves 2.4.1 Specifying sound waves 2.4.2 The spectrum 17 2.4.3 Generating some vowel-like waveforms 2.4.4 Spectra of aperiodic sounds 2.5 Scaling and the spectrum 2.5.1 Amplitude, power and intensity 2.5.2 The decibel scale 2.5.3 The octave scale 2.6 Summary 2.7 Further reading Notes 3 Analysing sound: the spectrograph 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Spectrography 3.2.1 Basic principles 3.2.2 An example spectrogram 3.2.3 Narrow band spectrograms 3.2.4 Pre-emphasis 3.2.5 Two-dimensional spectra 3.2.6 Supplementary displays: waveform, intensity and fundamental frequency 3.3 Recording 3.3.1 Recording as translation 3.3.2 Fidelity 3.3.3 Digital recording 3.3.3.1 Sampling rate 3.3.3.2 Quantisation 3.4 Digital spectrography 3.4.1 Recording for analysis 3.4.2 Calculating the power spectrum 3.4.3 Determining fundamental frequency (F0) 18 3.5 Summary 3.6 Further reading 4 The acoustics of speech production 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Modelling a simple vowel 4.2.1 The voice source 4.2.2 The vocal tract filter 4.2.2.1 The concept of filter 4.2.2.2 Formant frequencies 4.2.3 Combining source and filter 4.2.4 The radiation function 4.2.5 Comparison with a spoken vowel 4.3 Varying the voice source 4.4 Varying the vocal tract filter 4.4.1 Simple models for three vowels 4.4.2 More realistic models of vowel articulation 4.4.3 A general model of vowel production 4.4.4 Phonological implications of modelling 4.5 Estimating filter characteristics: linear predictive coding 4.6 Extending the source-filter approach to other classes of speech sounds 4.6.1 Nasals, laterals and nasalised vowels 4.6.2 Obstruent consonants 4.7 Summary 4.8 Further reading Notes 5.Perception and hearing 5.1 Introduction 19 5.2 From acoustic signals to perceptual objects: the search for acoustic cues 5.2.1 An example: Voice Onset Time 5.2.2 The problem of lack of invariance 5.2.3 Is speech special? 5.2.3.1 Categorical perception 5.2.3.2 Multiple cues and trading relations 5.2.3.3 Duplex perception 5.2.3.4 Bimodal perception 5.2.3.5 Arguments against the specialness of speech 5.2.4 Theories of speech perception 5.2.4.1 The Motor Theory 5.2.4.2 Direct Realism 5.2.4.3 The Fuzzy Logical Model 5.2.4.4 Strong theories relating the acoustic signal to phonological features 5.2.4.5 Non-analytic approaches 5.3 Hearing 5.3.1 Structure of the auditory system 5.3.2 Spectra in the auditory nerve 5.3.2.1 Voiceless fricatives 5.3.2.2 Vowels 5.3.3 The VOT boundary 5.3.4 Adaptation 5.4 Psychophysics and the auditory spectrograph 5.4.1 Scales of frequency based on auditory filters 5.4.2 Auditory spectra 5.5 Conclusion 5.6 Further reading 20 Note 6.The acoustic description of vowels 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Formant frequencies and the vowel quadrilateral 6.2.1 The rounding dimension 6.2.2 Central vowels 6.3 Formant frequencies and vowel charts: the problem of psychological reality 6.4 The spectral integration hypothesis 6.4.1 Integration of F2 with other formants 6.4.2 A role for F0? 6.5 A system of binary features for vowels? 6.6 The traditional vowel quadrilateral revisited 6.7 Other dimensions of vowel classification 6.7.1 Nasalised vowels 6.7.2 Advanced Tongue Root (ATR) vowels 6.7.3 Rhoticity and pharyngealisation 6.8 Diphthongs 6.9 Alternative approaches to vowel quality 6.10 The problem of normalisation 6.11 Predicting the structure of vowel systems 6.12 Summary 6.13 Further reading 7 The acoustic description of consonants 7.1 Introduction 7.2 General concepts 7.2.1 Intervals and transitions 7.2.2 Acoustic dimensions in the description and classification of consonants 21 7.2.3 Acoustic boundaries and consonants 7.3 Stop consonants 7.3.1 General characteristics of stop consonants 7.3.2 Voicing and aspiration 7.3.3 Place of articulation 7.3.3.1 Stop bursts 7.3.3.2 Formant transitions 7.3.3.3 Spectral templates as invariant cues 7.4 Fricatives 7.5 Affricates 7.6 The fricative-affricate contrast 7.7 Phonological contrasts involving voicing in obstruents 7.8 Sonorant consonants 7.8.1 Nasals 7.8.2 Semivowels 7.8.3 Lateral approximants (L-sounds) 7.8.4 Rhodes (R-sounds) 7.8.5 An overview of manner contrasts involving sonorants 7.9 Acoustic phonetics and the structure of consonant systems 7.10 Further reading Notes 8 Speech production 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The airstream 8.2.1 Principles of air flow 8.2.2 Respiratory