jjtfotfW^T-^ STATEMENTS 1. The preference forlarg e and specialised irrigation systems by African governments and donors alike, isarguabl y the most serious error ofeconomi c judgement with respectt o irrigation...larg esystem sar egenerall yincompatibl ewit hmos tAfrica n smallholder farming systems. These large systems fit the operational styles of Africa's top down, over- centralizedpubli csecto rorganizations . (Rukuni, 1997: 35). 2. After thirty years of irrigation settlement schemes in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) little understanding ofth eco-efficient s involvedi nth edevelopmen t ofth e schemeswoul dappea r toexist , (Reynolds, 1969: 299) 3. Managementi nsmallholde rirrigatio nscheme si nZimbabw ei sconceptualize d assomethin g tod owit ha serie so fproblems ,withou ta clea rcentra lide ao fwha tmanagemen t is,an dho w itma yb edifferen t from administration,governanc e orpolic y formulation. This observation presents a strong case for problematising theconcep t of management in smallholder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe, focusing onho w it is defined and what aspectsar e involved. (thisthesis) 4. There should be no attempt to have afastidiou s definition of management -management should beunderstoo d as relating to day-to-day actions/activitiesundertake n by avariet y of actors inrelatio n towate r delivery/distribution, field irrigation and crop production and disposal. (thisthesis) 5. Three operational realities that are critical to irrigation management include water distributionfield, irrigatio n andcro pproductio n anddisposal . (thisthesis) 6. Twovirtua l realitiestha t militate against implementation of strategic (operational) action in irrigationmanagemen tar eideolog yan dinstitutionalisation . (thisthesis) 7. The relationship between farmers and the state appears to be an eternal game where each attempts to master the intricacies of the other, and use the practical knowledge gained to theirow nadvantage .Bu tth eplayin gfield o fthi s gamei sno tlevel .Th eprominenc e ofstat e structures dominated by government officials raises the political question of how the state relatest ofarmers . (Manzunguand van der Zaag, 1996) 8. Theus eo fth ewor d 'managers' inpublic-ru nirrigatio n schemesi smisleading .B yth esam e token state-managed irrigation schemes isa misnomer because weimpl y that in such schemes farmers do not have any management functions. These labels tell usver y little aboutth edynamic so firrigatio nmanagement ,certainl yno ta tth eoperationa llevel . (thisthesis) 9. The challenge in operational irrigation management ist o identify the relevant management domains and use them to understand and craft better management practices. Management domains refer to the fact that some actors are more active than others and have more influence in what happens in some aspects of the scheme. It bears close resemblance to contingency management (thisthesis) 10. Contingency management emphasizes that the beginning of management wisdom is the awarenesstha tther ei sn oon eoptimu mmanagemen t system. (thisthesis) Propositionrelate dt oth ethesi s"Strategie so fSmallholde r IrrigationManagemen t in Zimbabwe".Emmanue l Manzungu. Wageningen, Oktober 1999. Strategies of Smallholder Irrigation Management in Zimbabwe Promotor: L.F. Vincent, Professor of Irrigation and Water Engineering, Wageningen University Emmanuel Manzungu Strategies of Smallholder Irrigation Management in Zimbabwe Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor op gezag van de rector magnificus van Wageningen Universiteit, dr. CM. Karssen, inhe t openbaar te verdedigen op woensdag 15 december 1999 des namiddags te 16.00 uur in de Aula ISBN 90-5808-145-1 Address for correspondence: 1606Marap a Road New Houghton Park Harare, Zimbabwe © Emmanuel Manzungu, Harare 1999-09-22 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without prior permission in writing from the holder of the copyright except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages in a review. BIBLIOTHEEK LANDBOUWUNIVERSITHT WAGENINGEN ABSTRACT Strategies of smallholder irrigation management in Zimbabwe The smallholder irrigation sub-sector in Zimbabwe, according to literature sources, is under threat due to what are called management problems. Poor water management and low crop yields have been cited, as has also been poor financial and economic viability, resulting in heavy government subsidies. Schemes run by farmers are said to be better managed than those under government management. This study sought to understand the implied management problem in both government and farmer-managed smallholder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe. The study had its focus operational irrigation management, dealing with what irrigation management actually was,wha t it involved and did not involve, and how it was executed in practice. This was investigated in relation to water delivery/distribution, field irrigation and crop production and disposal as three distinguishable operational 'levels' in irrigation management. The socio-technical approach to irrigation was chosen asth e general theoretical framework of the study since it is able to handle both social and technical aspects. A number of concepts were used namely practice, coping strategies, institutionalisation and ideology. Empirical evidence was mainly gathered with respect to Mutambara, Chibuwe and Fuve Panganai irrigation schemes. The study was conducted between 1994 and 1996 and included at least two wet and dry seasons. Theempirica l material demonstrated that water distribution was affected by the water source, the technology, social relations and commoditization of certain crops, which however, combined and recombined differently in each scheme it was concluded formal water allocation should not be emphasized ahead of how actually water is distributed in practice. Farmers were found to be at the very centre of field irrigation as shown by farmers' ability to cope with the demands of timing of irrigation, the amount of water to be applied and the actual application of water in the fields. Apart from the biophysical conditions of the fields, farmer's face challenges in the social realm, particularly socio-economic factors such as lack of draught power and related financial resources to adequately prepare lands for irrigation. There was also a discussion of the causes of the discrepancy between farmers and government officials in relation to operational aspects of irrigation management. These included institutionalization highlighting that certain practices were largely a result of routines having been established and ideology referring to the fact that interventions tend to be based on ideas about what ought to be done ideally, and not on practical realities on the ground. The major conclusions of the study were that the state tended to administer rather than manage irrigation schemes. In contrast farmers in all the schemes easily engaged with operational aspects of irrigation management. Farmers, however, had their shortcomings particularly, in relation to factoring extra-local factors. The findings caution against hasty conclusion that farmer management was superior to government management without understanding the coefficients of the actual management in place. It is suggested that irrigation management should be seen as composed of management domains where some actors are more active in one area than others for a variety of reasons. This observation justifies acontingenc y approach to management originating from organizational theory which can be summarized thus: the beginning of management wisdom isth e awareness that there is noon e optimum management system. CONTENTS Pg Listo ffigure s iii Listo ftable s iv Listo fboxe s v Acronymsan dAbbreviation s vi Preface vii 1.INTRODUCTIO N 1 1.1 AnOvervie wo fManagement-relate d Problemsi nSmallholde r Irrigation inZimbabw e 1 1.2 Focuso fth e Research 3 1.3 TheConcep to fIrrigatio n Management: TheInternationa l Scene 5 1.4 SomeTheoretica l Reflections onIrrigatio nManagemen t 9 1.5 ResearchMethodolog y 15 1.6 AnOutlin eo fth e Thesis 17 2. CONTEXT OFTH E STUDY: AN OVERVIEW OF SMALLHOLDER IRRIGATIONI NZIMBABW E 21 2.1Statu so fSmallholde r Irrigation inZimbabw e 21 2.2 Characteristics ofSmallholde r Irrigation Schemesi nZimbabw e 24 2.3Nationa l Goalsversu sLoca lNeed si nSmallholde r Irrigation 30 2.4Recurrin g Issuesi nIrrigatio n Management 33 2.5 Concluding Remarks 37 3.A PROFIL E OFTH ESTUD YSCHEME S 39 3.1 Mutambara 40 3.2 Chibuwe 46 3.3 FuvePanganai 55 3.4 Conclusions 63 4.TH EDYNAMIC S OFWATE R DISTRIBUTION 65 4.1Conceptualizin g WaterDistributio n 65 4.2 WaterDistributio n inChibuwe :Th eDomai no fth eWate rBailif f 67 4.3 Discovering Flexibility inFuv ePangana i 79 4.4 OfRoyalt y andCas hcrop si nMutambar a 84 4.5Conclusion s 94 5.FIEL DIRRIGATIO N IN PRACTICE 97 5.1 SomeBasic so fFiel d Irrigation 97 5.2 LandPreparatio n and Sowing 99 5.3Decidin g Whent oIrrigat ean dHo wMuc ht oAppl y 102 5.4 Executing Field Irrigation 107 5.5 Conclusions 110 6.INSTITUTIONALIZATIO N INWATE R CONTROL 113 6.1Hydrauli c Structures andWate r Control 115 6.2 AnInventor y ofHydrauli c Structures 116 6.3 Optionsa tth e Gate:Alternativ e Useso fth e SluiceGat e 128 6.4Conclusion s 132 Pg 7.IDEOLOGICA L PURSUITS:TH ECAS EO FBLOC KIRRIGATIO N 135 7.1 TheRational eo fBloc kIrrigatio n 136 7.2A Compariso n ofBloc kIrrigatio n andConventiona l Irrigation 137 7.3Th eFou rTenet so fBloc kIrrigatio n 139