The Structure of the Information Visualization Design Space Stuart K. Card and Jock Mackinlay Xerox PARC 3333 Coyote Hill Road Palo Alto, CA 94304 USA {card, mackinlay}@parc.xerox.com ABSTRACT SEMIOLOGY OF GRAPHICAL DATA COMMUNICATION Research on information visualization has reached the Graphics, according to Bertin[5], have at least two distinct place where a number of successful point designs have uses, which should not be confused: first, as the means of been proposed and a number of techniques of been communicating some information (in which case the discovered. It is now appropriate to begin to describe and communicator already understands this information in analyze portions of the design space so as to understand advance) and second, for graphical processing (in which the differences among designs and to suggest new case a person uses the manipulation and perception of possibilities. This paper proposes an organization of the graphical objects to solve a problem). As Bertin puts this information visualization literature and illustrates it with a latter use: series of examples. The result is a framework for Graphics is the visual means of resolving logical designing new visualizations and augmenting existing problems. [5, p. 16]. designs. It is this visual processing use with which we are mostly Keywords concerned in information visualization, but interactive information visualization, taxonomy, design space, visual processing depends on a series of visual morphological analysis communication acts by the machine. These INTRODUCTION communicative acts map data and intent into In recent years, information visualization, the computer visualization. assisted use of visual processing to gain understanding, Data. Information visualization starts with information in has become a topic of significant development and the form of data. There are many forms that this data research. Advances in this area are spurred on by could take, from spreadsheets to the text of novels, but increases in the power and availability of graphically agile much of it can be represented as cases by variable arrays computers and by advances in communications, or can be transformed (perhaps with loss of information) particularly the growth of the World-Wide Web, which into this form. Text, for example, can be used to compute increases the amount of data available to a worker by document vectors, normalized vectors in a space with orders of magnitude. dimensionality as large as the number of words. Each This new field has grown to a series of point designs that document becomes a case and the direction of the vector exploit the new graphical capabilities. It is typical for becomes a variable. The different data types are technologies to proceed at this point from point designs to important in their own right; text has its own characteristic abstractions that organize regions on the design space. In operations, in fact the subcategories of patent text or this paper, we propose a framework and illustrate the financial report text have their own unique characteristics framework from samples from the literature. Our analysis and potential unique operations on them, but for our builds on recent attempts to understand parts of the design purposes in this paper, we start with what can eventually space. Keller[1] lists techniques used in scientific be represented as the set of values taken on by a set of visualization. Chuah and Roth[2] taxonomizes the tasks of variables. information visualization. Shneiderman[3] proposes a The major distinction we wish to make for data is whether data type by task matrix. Our analysis is closest in spirit their values are to Tweedie’s [4], who also starts from Bertin. Our analysis, starts from an expanded version of Bertin’s [5, 6] Nominal (are only = or • to other values), and Mackinlay’s [7] analysis of the semiotics of graphics Ordered (obey a < relation), or are and notes groups of techniques based on similarities of Quantitative (can manipulated by arithmetic). their data to visualization mappings. We notate these as N, O, and Q respectively. In a more detailed analysis, we would also note the cardinality of a variable, since one of the points of information Symbol Meaning visualization is to allow visual processing in regions of Variable Name of data dimension high cardinality. We distinguish subtypes of Q for D Data Type ::= N (= Nominal), intrinsically spatial variables and spatial variables that are O (= Ordinal), actually geophysical coordinates. We also distinguish Q (= Quantitative). QX (= Quantitative and intrinsically spatial), between data D that is in an original dataset and data D’ QXlon (= Geographical) that has been selected from this set and possibly NxN (=Nominal set mapped to itself as in transformed by some filter or recoding function F, graphs) D --> F --> D’ . F Filter or function for recode data ::= f (= unspecified filter fn) Visualizations. Visualizations are basically made from (1) fs (= sorting) Marks, (2) their Graphical Properties, and (3) elements mds (= multidimensional scaling requiring human Controlled Processing (such as text)[7]. > (= data reduction filter vis sliders and Human visual processing works on two levels: automatic menus) and controlled processing[8]. Automatic processing, sl (= slider) which works on visual properties such as position and D’ Recoded Data Type color, is highly parallel, but limited in power; controlled XYZT Position in space time processing, which works on for example text, has * Non-semantic use of space-time powerful operations, but is limited in capacity. The distinction between these two types of capacity is R Retinal properties ::= C (= Color), S (= Size) ---- Connection important for visual design. [] Enclosure There are a limited set of available Graphical Properties, CP Control Processing (tx) the basic set of which have been identified by Bertin [6] P,L,A,S,V Mark types ::= P (= Point), L (= Line), and expanded by Mackinlay [7] (and we expand further S (= Surface), A (= Area), V (= Volume) here): An elementary visual presentation consists of a set of Marks (which could be Points, Lines, Areas, Surfaces, Using these distinctions, we can see the major types of or Volumes), a Position in space and time (the X, Y plane visualizations that have emerged. in classical graphics, but X, Y, Z, T 3D space plus time in information visualization), and a set of “Retinal” SCIENTIFIC VISUALIZATION Scientific visualization generally starts from data whose properties, such as Color and Size). We also add, variables are intrinsically spatial. An example is following [7], the properties of Connection (notated “—”) Treinish’s animated and very beautiful map of the earth’s and Enclosure (notated “[]”). Thus, visualizations are ozone layer[9](see Fig. 1). Because spatial and composed from the following visual vocabulary: geographical variables are so frequent, we adopt the Marks: (Point, Line, Area, Surface, Volume) special notation of QX and QY for Q (Quantitative) Automaticity Processed Graphical Properties variables that are intrinsically spatial and QXlon and Position: (X, Y, Z, T) QYlat for Q variables that are earth coordinates. Retinal encodings: (Color, Size, Shape, Scientific visualizations, then, usually have mappings Gray-level, Orientation, Texture) QX-->X:P (i.e., a spatial quantitative variable is Connections mapped into a position in X) Enclosure QY-->Y:P, Controlled Processing Graphical Properties and often To make comparisons easy, we use a common table format for these properties: QZ--> Z:P Data Automatic Properties Controlled as in Table 1 (We ignore for now the distinction between Variabl D F D’ X Y Z T R — [] CP Cartesian and radial coordinates). Ozone density is e mapped into the Retinal variable Color. Fig. 1. Ozone concentration[9] The table is divided into the major sections of Data, Automatic Processing, and Controlled Processing by double lines. In the table we use codings (which we develop in context) summarized as follows: Table 1. Ozone visualization (See Fig. 1) Table 2. SDM (See Fig. 2) Name D F D’ X Y Z T R — [] CP Name D F D’ X Y Z T R — [] CP Lon. QX fQXP lon lon Long QX QX P Lat. QY fQY P lon lon lat lat Lat QY QY P Height QZ f QZ P lat lat Ozone Q O C Profit Q Q L Region N N C MULTI-DIMENSIONAL SCATTERGRAPHS GIS These type of visualizations take variables which are not GIS-based visualizations are similar to other scientific intrinsically spatial and map them onto X and Y, e.g., visualizations, but more specialized, with intrinsically Q --> X:P geo-coordinate variables mapped onto X and Y: Other (often ordinal) variables can be placed on sliders QXlon-->X:P, O --> sl QYlat -->Y:P. and the sliders used to control the variables for filters. In In Fig. 2, from Roth’s group (Fig. 2), this leaves the Z axis the FilmFinder [11], Fig. 3, sliders (which appear as sl in free and it is used for another data variable. Table 3), control filters on which cases are shown on the Q --> Z:L. scattergraph. The sliders are separate, visual A final variable, Profit, is mapped onto a Retinal presentations, and so are separated from the rest of the presentation, Color, table. The essence of the dynamic queries technique, of which the FilmFinder is an example, is that changes in the Q --> R:Color. sliders have instantaneous effect on the items included. Fig. 2. SDM[10] In this way, the effects of multiple variables with a large number of values can be taken into account without being coded as Retinal variables, keeping the display simple and easily interpretable. Fig. 3. FilmFinder [11] Fig. 4. World within worlds[12] Table 3. FilmFinder (See Fig. 3) Name D F D’ X Y Z T R — [] CP Table 4. Worlds Within Worlds (Fig. 5) YearQ>QP Name D F D’ X Y Z T R — [] CP Quality Q > Q P V1 Q f P P Type N > N C V2 Q f P P Title O sl> V3 Q f P P Actor O sl> V4 Q f> Q S Actress O sl> V5 Q f> Q S Director O sl> V6 Q f> Q S Length Q br> V7 Q Q C Rating N br> MULTI-DIMENSIONAL TABLES Feiner’s Worlds-Within-Worlds technique is another way Another interesting visualization for multidimensional of showing higher dimension data.