Notes 1 Introduction: The Childhood of the Poor 1. R. H. Tawney (1926) Religion and the rise of capitalism (London: J. Murray), p. 222, quoted in Gertrude Himmelfarb (1984) The idea of poverty: England in the early industrial age (London: Faber), p. 3. 2. Hugh Cunningham (1991) The children of the poor: representations of child- hood since the seventeenth century (Oxford: Blackwell), p. 228; Lynn Hollen Lees (1998) The solidarities of strangers: the English poor laws and the people (Cambridge University Press), pp. 39–40. 3. Linda Pollock (1983) Forgotten children: parent–child relations from 1500–1900 (Cambridge University Press); Anthony Fletcher (2008) Growing up in England: the experience of childhood, 1600–1914 (New Haven: Yale University Press); Joanne Bailey (2012) Parenting in England c. 1760–1830: emotions, identities, and generations (Oxford University Press). 4. For example, Alysa Levene (2007) Childcare, health and mortality at the London Foundling Hospital, 1741–1800: ‘Left to the mercy of the world’ (Manchester University Press); Heather Shore (1999) Artful dodgers: youth and crime in early nineteenth-century London (London: RHS); Peter King (1998) ‘The rise of juve- nile delinquency in England 1780–1840: changing patterns of perception and prosecution’, Past & Present, 160, 116–66. 5. Patricia Crawford (2010) Parents of poor children in England, 1580–1800 (Oxford University Press); Jane Humphries (2010) Childhood and child labour and the British industrial revolution (Cambridge University Press); Peter Kirby (2003) Child labour in Britain, 1750–1870 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan); Katrina Honeyman (2007) Child workers in England, 1780–1820: parish appren- tices and the making of the early industrial labour force (Aldershot: Ashgate). 6. Philippe Ariès (1962) Centuries of childhood (London: Cape) (first published in French as L’Enfant et la vie familiale sous l’Ancien Régime in 1960); Lawrence Stone (1977) The family, sex and marriage in England, 1500–1800 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson); Edward Shorter (1976) The making of the modern family (London: Collins); Lloyd de Mause (ed.) (1974) The history of childhood (New York: Psychohistory Press). 7. John Sommerville (1982) The rise and fall of childhood (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage), pp. 120–1; Ralph A. Houlbrooke (1984) The English family, 1450–1700 (Harlow: Longman), pp. 140–5. 8. Pollock, Forgotten children. 9. Nicholas Orme (2001) Medieval children (New Haven: Yale University Press); Barbara Hanawalt (1993) Growing up in medieval London: the experience of child- hood in history (Oxford University Press). Sommerville describes the period of the Reformation as ‘Childhood becomes crucial’, although the eighteenth century remains the one of ‘kindness towards children’ (Sommerville, Rise and fall of childhood). 10. John Locke (1693) Some thoughts concerning education (London). 184 Notes to Chapter 1 185 11. See Anna Moltchonova and Susannah Ottaway, ‘Rights and reciprocity in the political and philosophical discourse of the eighteenth century’, in Linda Zionkowski and Cynthia Klekor (eds) (2009) The culture of the gift in eighteenth-century England (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan), pp. 15–36. 12. Ibid., pp. 17–18. 13. Hugh Cunningham (1995) Children and childhood in Western society since 1500 (London: Longman), p. 62. 14. See, for example, J. H. Plumb (1975) ‘The new world of children’, Past & Present, 67, 64–95; Karin Calvert (1994) Children in the house: the material cul- ture of early childhood, 1600–1900 (Boston: Northeastern University Press). 15. Cunningham, Children and childhood, p. 62. 16. Another difference was Locke’s emphasis on the infant’s inherent disposi- tion towards evil. This contrasts with Rousseau’s greater stress on the asso- ciation between children and uncorrupted nature. The two works were also written in quite different styles: Locke’s as a guide to education; Rousseau’s with a strong narrative thread and a fictional child-subject. On the eight- eenth century as the first period of parental advice manuals see Christina Hardyment (1995) Perfect parents: baby-care advice past and present (Oxford University Press), pp. xi–xii, and on Rousseau’s influence, pp. 7–8. On the rise of a scientific approach to childcare in the eighteenth century see Adriana S. Benzaquén (2004) ‘Childhood, identity and human science in the Enlightenment’, History Workshop Journal, 57, 34–57. 17. Margaret Pelling, ‘Child health as a social value in early modern England’, in Pelling (1998) The common lot: sickness, medical occupations and the urban poor in early modern England (London and New York: Longman), pp. 105–33, discussing the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; Steve Hindle (2004) On the parish? The micro-politics of poor relief in rural England, c. 1550–1750 (Oxford University Press), pp. 171, 192–226. 18. Joanna Innes, ‘Power and happiness: empirical social enquiry in Britain, from “political arithmetic” to “moral statistics”, in Innes (2009) Inferior politics: social problems and social policies in eighteenth-century Britain (Oxford University Press). This approach was associated with William Petty, and in fact he included the costs of nursing deserted children in his calculations (Paul Slack (1999) From reformation to improvement: public welfare in early modern England (Oxford: Clarendon Press), pp. 93–4). 19. Donna Andrew (1989) Philanthropy and police: London charity in the eight- eenth century (Princeton University Press), esp. pp. 54–7 and 74–97; Sarah Lloyd (2009) Charity and poverty in England c.1680–1820: wild and visionary schemes (Manchester University Press); David Owen (1964) English philan- thropy 1660–1960 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), pp. 36–68, esp. 52–61. 20. Jonas Hanway (1770) Advice from a farmer to his daughter, 3 vols (London), vol. 3, p. 426. 21. Jonas Hanway (1766) An earnest appeal for mercy to the children of the poor (London), p. v. 22. Blaug has also pointed out that writers on population theory in this period tend to see children as an investment ‘for the sake of future return’, rather than a current investment for present satisfaction ( John Blaug (1996) Economic theory in retrospect, 5th edn (Cambridge University Press), p. 74). 186 Notes to Chapter 1 23. See Angela M. O’Rand and Margaret L. Krecker (1990) ‘Concepts of the life cycle: their history, meanings, and uses in the social sciences’, Annual Review of Sociology, 16, 241–62, and references. 24. For example, Jonas Hanway (1759) Letters on the importance of the rising generation of the laboring part of our fellow subjects, 2 vols (London); Frederick Morton Eden (1966, facsimile of 1797 edition) The state of the poor, 3 vols (London: Frank Cass), vol. 1, pp. 338–9; Jeremy Bentham, ‘Pauper manage- ment improved’, in J. Bowring (ed.) (1843, 1962 reprint) The works of Jeremy Bentham (Edinburgh: William Tait), vol. 8; John Hill Burton (ed.) (1844) Benthamiana: or select extracts from the works of Jeremy Bentham (Philadelphia). Some of Bentham’s ideas were incorporated into the Report on training of pauper children of 1841. See also J. S. Taylor (1979) ‘Philanthropy and empire: Jonas Hanway and the infant poor of London’, Eighteenth-Century Studies, 12:3, 285–305; Ronald L. Meek (1973) Studies in the labour theory of value, 2nd edn (London: Lawrence and Wishart), pp. 11–81; Himmelfarb, The idea of poverty, pp. 42–66. 25. This idea was usually allied to debates about education, and was most famously set out by Bernard Mandeville in his 1714 Fable of the bees: or, pri- vate vices, publick benefits (although he did allow for some social mobility). See Andrew, Philanthropy and police, pp. 32–41, esp. 34–5. This continued to be a live issue throughout the century. 26. Hanway, Earnest appeal, p. 73. 27. Jonas Hanway (1760) A candid historical account of the hospital for the reception of exposed and deserted young children, 2nd edn (London), pp. 46–7. 28. Hanway, Earnest appeal, p. 73. See Lloyd, Charity and poverty, on the trend to seeing the young as the nation’s future in contemporary writing from the start of the century (pp. 84–8). 29. Cunningham, Children of the poor, pp. 20–1. 30. See M. G. Jones (1964) The charity school movement: a study of eighteenth- century Puritanism in action (London: Cass); Jeremy Schmidt (2010) ‘Charity and the government of the poor in the English charity-school movement, circa 1700–1730’, Journal of British Studies, 49:4, 774–800; Deborah Simonton (2000) ‘Schooling the poor: gender and class in eighteenth-century England’, Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies, 23:2, 183–202; Alannah Tomkins (2006) The experience of urban poverty, 1723–82: parish, charity and credit (Manchester University Press), pp. 163–203; Craig Rose (1991) ‘Evangelical philanthropy and Anglican Revival: the charity schools of Augustan London, 1698–1740’, London Journal, 16:1, 33–65. 31. Jones, Charity school movement, p. 57. 32. Sarah Lloyd (2002) ‘Pleasing spectacles and elegant dinners: conviviality, benevolence and charity anniversaries in eighteenth-century London’, The Journal of British Studies, 41:1, 39. 33. Ibid. See also Lloyd, Charity and poverty. 34. Lloyd, ‘Pleasing spectacles’; Cunningham, Children of the poor, pp. 38–49. Cunningham notes in particular that ‘Children’s central role in the ritual [of Holy Thursday in St Paul’s] enhanced its value and gave it an emotional quality which might otherwise have been lacking’ (p. 41). These proces- sions and services could involve thousands of children, which in themselves embodied the sheer quantity of work potential available. Notes to Chapter 1 187 35. See, for example, Paul Slack, ‘Hospitals, workhouses and the relief of the poor in early modern London’, in Ole Peter Grell and Andrew Cunningham (eds) (1997) Health care and poor relief in Protestant Europe, 1500–1700 (London: Routledge), pp. 234–51. 36. This was according to the terms of the 1662 Law of Settlement. See J. S. Taylor (1989) Poverty, migration and settlement in the industrial revolution: sojourners’ narratives (Palo Alto, CA: Society for the Promotion of Science and Scholarship).