Faculty of Media, Society and Culture The Disability Divide: A Study into the Impact of Computing and Internet-related Technologies on People who are Blind or Vision Impaired Scott Emery Hollier This thesis is presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Curtin University of Technology January 2007 DECLARATION This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university. To the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis contains no material previously published by any other person except where due acknowledgment has been made. ________________________ ________________________ Scott Hollier Date 1 ABSTRACT People with disabilities, and in particular people who are blind or vision impaired, are not embracing computing and Internet-related technologies at the same rate as the able-bodied population. The purpose of this study was to find the reasons behind this digital divide for people with disabilities and provide solutions. The investigation into this ‘disability divide’ initially examined the historical significance of the social construction of disability, the developments of computing and Internet-related technologies and the evolution of associated government and corporate policies. In order to gain an understanding of the specific elements in the current disability divide, interviews were conducted with a range of government representatives, multinational information technology developers and online information providers in Australia and the United States of America. In order to gain an understanding of what people with disabilities required from information technology, a national survey was conducted with people who are blind or vision impaired to determine their computing and Internet experiences. This study clearly identified that people with vision disabilities have a high level of computing and Internet expertise and it is specific barriers, rather than lack of will, that has prevented access to computing and Internet-related technologies. These barriers include issues relating to the perception of disability in society, Federal and state government policy, corporate policy, mainstream computing products, assistive technologies, real-time online communication, poverty and a lack of educational opportunities. Addressing the issues in these areas will significantly reduce the impact of the disability divide, allowing people who are blind or vision impaired to participate more effectively in the information age. 2 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 10 Purpose of the study ..................................................................................................................... 10 Research questions ........................................................................................................................ 11 Aims and objectives ...................................................................................................................... 12 Significance of the study ............................................................................................................... 12 Background to the study ............................................................................................................... 13 Overview of the thesis ................................................................................................................... 16 1.0 THE SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF DISABILITY ........ 19 1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 19 1.2 Disability today ............................................................................................................... 19 1.3 The social construction of disability................................................................................ 22 1.4 Policy approaches for people with disabilities ................................................................ 26 1.5 Examples of disability-related policy and legislation development in western countries 29 1.6 The evolution of the International Classification of Impairment, Disability and Handicap ....................................................................................................................................... 33 1.7 Disability from the perspective of blind and vision impaired individuals ...................... 36 1.8 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 39 2.0 THE ROLE OF COMPUTING AND INTERNET-RELATED TECHNOLOGIES FOR PEOPLE WHO ARE BLIND OR VISION IMPAIRED .......................................................................................................... 41 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 41 2.2 The creation of the white cane and electronic-based technologies ................................. 42 2.3 The hope of personal computing ..................................................................................... 46 2.4 Overcoming the difficulties of the graphical user interface............................................ 48 2.5 The hope of the Internet .................................................................................................. 50 2.6 Overcoming the difficulties of the World Wide Web ..................................................... 53 2.7 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 56 3 3.0 ELEMENTS OF THE DISABILITY DIVIDE ....................................... 57 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 57 3.2 Current access to computing and the Internet ............................................................... 57 3.3 The digital divide and the disability divide ..................................................................... 59 3.4 The interaction of changing social categories and assistive technology development .... 61 3.5 Accessibility barriers of personal computing ................................................................. 63 3.6 Accessibility barriers of the Internet .............................................................................. 66 3.7 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 69 4.0 DISABILITY-SPECIFIC POLICY AND LEGISLATION ..................... 71 4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 71 4.2 Methodology for personal interviews.............................................................................. 72 4.3 Historical development of disability and information technology legislation ................ 77 4.4 Australian and United States policy frameworks ........................................................... 79 4.4.1 Australian framework ..................................................................................................... 79 4.4.2 United States framework ................................................................................................. 83 4.5 Benefits and problems of Australian and United States policy and legislation .............. 85 4.6 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 90 5.0 THE PROVISION OF ONLINE INFORMATION............................... 92 5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 92 5.2 The provision of government online information ........................................................... 93 5.3 Legal precedents regarding access to information technology for people with disabilities 95 5.4 Provision of online information by the media ................................................................. 98 5.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 102 6.0 THE PROVISION OF OPERATING SYSTEMS, SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS AND HARDWARE ..........................................................104 6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 104 6.2 Mainstream corporate implementation of accessibility policy ..................................... 105 6.3 Disability-specific product vendors’ accessibility policy .............................................. 112 6.4 Corporate policies based on legal requirements ........................................................... 115 4 6.5 Products designed to assist people who are blind or vision impaired .......................... 116 6.5.1 Accessibility tools in mainstream operating systems .................................................... 116 6.5.2 Hardware products ....................................................................................................... 123 6.5.3 Software products .......................................................................................................... 129 6.5.4 Internet tools .................................................................................................................. 134