Millennials as the Future of Corrections: A Generational Analysis of Public Policy Opinions A dissertation submitted to the Graduate School at the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in the School of Criminal Justice of the College of Education, Criminal Justice, and Human Services 2020 by Heejin Lee LL.B., Korean National Police University, 2009 M.S., University of Cincinnati, 2015 Dissertation Committee J. C. Barnes, Ph.D. (Chair) Francis T. Cullen, Ph.D. Edward J. Latessa, Ph.D. Cheryl Lero Jonson, Ph.D. ABSTRACT Recently, the concept of “generation” has received considerable commentary in academic and popular circles. Millennials—ages 24 to 39 on Election Day 2020—have gained particular attention due to the generation’s size (more than 75 million), spending power (about $1.3 trillion per year), and growing political influence. Accordingly, a host of studies from disciplines such as business, education, political science, and psychology have investigated the nature and possible distinctiveness of Millennials’ beliefs and behaviors. Only limited research, however, has been undertaken exploring the possible effects of generational membership on crime and criminal justice issues. This dissertation seeks to help close this void in the literature. This omission in the research is consequential considering the impact that Millennials’ public opinion might have on the future of the U.S. criminal justice system. Notably, American corrections is in the midst of a historic policy turning point from offender exclusion to offender inclusion. For four decades, the United States was enmeshed in a punitive era during which offenders were removed and/or ostracized from society through exclusionary policies (e.g., mass incarceration, punitive laws, expansion of debilitating collateral sanctions). Beginning around 2010, however, a paradigmatic shift occurred marked by a halt in the growth of prison populations and the spread of inclusionary policies (e.g., prisoner reentry programs, criminal record expungement). In this context, one way to prognosticate if the current changes are likely to continue into the future is to examine Millennials’ views on corrections. If this large generation is supportive of offender inclusion, then its members are likely to be political force favoring progressive policies and reforms as they proceed across their life course. Based on a 2017 opt-in internet i panel survey conducted by YouGov (N = 1,000), this dissertation assesses the nature of Millennials’ correctional policy opinions and compares these to the views of other generations. The levels of support for 13 correctional policies are reported, and generational differences are estimated through multivariate analyses. Three correctional themes are explored: (1) public support for punitiveness (the death penalty, court harshness, and punishment as the goal of prisons); (2) offender rehabilitation, reentry, and reintegration (restoration of civil rights, fair-chance hiring, reducing collateral sanctions, expungement of criminal records, general attitudes toward expungement, having the FBI review criminal records); and (3) offender redemption (formal redemption rituals, redeemability). As a result, this study presents the most comprehensive assessment of what Millennials think about American corrections. The main findings of this dissertation are twofold. First, as a generation in and of themselves, Millennials are only modestly punitive but clearly supportive of progressive policies. Millennials favor a rehabilitative correctional orientation, believe in offender redeemability, and prefer policies that reduce exclusion and increase inclusion. Second, generational differences in public support for correctional policies are limited. Regardless of generation, the respondents tend to embrace inclusionary policies. Thus, in the future, Millennials will likely seek to transform the current correctional turning point into a lengthy era of progressive reform—a project that will be similarly endorsed by Americans of all generations. ii COPYRIGHT NOTICE © by Heejin Lee iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS As the saying goes, “It takes a village to raise a child”—and I have learned that the same wise saying applies to the process of writing a doctoral dissertation. This dissertation project was undertaken between June 2019, when my son Daniel turned 7 months old, and July 2020, when he was 20 months old. Being a novice to both parenthood and dissertation-writing, I would not have been able to finish this project without the support from the people in my “village.” Thus, I wish to take this opportunity to acknowledge their encouragement and guidance that meant the world to me while completing the current study. To begin with, I would like to express my very great appreciation to my mentor and academic father, Dr. Francis T. Cullen. Four years ago, as he occasionally recalls, I hovered around him with “donuts” (wait, not just donuts, but Silverton Donuts, which I discovered are the best in Cincinnati). One day in his office, I asked him if we might collaborate on a research project should the opportunity arise. Truth be told, I was looking for a nice way to wrap up the conversation after getting excused for being late on an assignment! As it turned out, however, I was unusually fortunate that he gave this request serious consideration (in this sense, I should perhaps acknowledge the significant influence of Silverton Donuts, although Dr. Cullen’s favorite is a jelly Dunkin Donut). Thereafter, our working relationship developed, which resulted in a number of publications and which enabled me to expand my understanding of American corrections. I also cannot thank him enough for constantly reminding me of my self- value and boosting my morale during challenging times (e.g., uneasy pregnancy, clumsy motherhood, navigating through the job market in the midst of a pandemic). My dissertation would not have been possible without the support from other members of my dissertation committee: Dr. J. C. Barnes, Dr. Edward Latessa, and Dr. Cheryl Lero Jonson iv (Xavier University). I am grateful to Dr. Barnes for his insightful ideas about statistical analyses that made the final product much stronger. Thanks for the thought-provoking feedback from Dr. Latessa, which led me to think more carefully about the potential influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on Millennials. I would also like to thank Dr. Jonson for her contributions—including her service as my external reader and her suggestion to compare Millennials and Generation Z, an issue that I had overlooked. As a whole, I am truly appreciative of their kind guidance and patience throughout this dissertation process. In addition, I want to express my gratitude to Dr. Velmer S. Burton (University of Arkansas at Little Rock) and Dr. Angela Thielo (University of Louisville) for granting me access to the data set used in this dissertation. Dr. Justin Pickett (University of Albany) must be noted for helping me to extend my knowledge on the nature of opt-in internet panel surveys and public opinion research—and for his generous collaboration that made possible my first publication in Justice Quarterly. My sincerest thanks are extended to the faculty and staff in School of Criminal Justice for all the advice and service they have provided to me throughout this journey. In particular, I would like to acknowledge Dr. John Wooldredge, Dr. Christopher Sullivan, Dr. Cory Haberman, Dr. Hexuan Liu, Dr. Joseph Nedelec, Dr. John Eck, Dr. Nicholas Corsaro, Dr. Paula Smith, and Dr. Pamela Wilcox (now at Pennsylvania State University) for taking the time to meet with me and answer my questions, guiding me on research projects, and offering invaluable advice. I also wish to express my appreciation to the school’s administrative staff for their assistance—namely, Jean Gary, Erin Cochran, Janice Miller, Betsy Macke, Shelley Paden, Terri Bennett, Luahna Winningham Carter, and John Schwartz. I was fortunate to be surrounded by these brilliant scholars and wonderful people while pursuing my master’s and doctorate degrees. They were always available when I needed help and cared for me even about the littlest things. Owing to v their support, I enjoyed to the fullest the years I spent at the University of Cincinnati. Of note, I am endlessly grateful to Dr. Smith, Dr. Barnes, Dr. Cullen, and Erin for their humane gestures to ensure my continued employment in the upcoming year. I will cherish their kindness for the rest of my academic career. I must thank my cohort members for their friendship and encouragement throughout the doctoral program: Amanda Graham, James Kelsay, Cheryl Johnson, Shannon Linning, Joshua Long, Ryan Motz, Jordan Papp, Ian Silver, Shahin Tasharoffi, and Nicole Wilkes (in alphabetical order). With little exaggeration, I dare to claim that I was in a “super star” cohort. When we were a few months into our first semester of the Ph.D. program (in Fall 2015), we had an outing at Mecklenburg Gardens. And I was shocked to hear that these ambitious young scholars were debating over how to increase their number of publications and to develop a scale named after them—just one example illustrating what kind of group I was in! Along my journey to earning my doctorate, I was continuously inspired by their excellence and professionalism. More than anything, it was my great pleasure to run an academic marathon with the people who really enjoyed what they were doing, who strived to become better, and who cared for one another. I wish to acknowledge another set of friends who made my graduate career a memorable and congenial experience. I owe much gratitude in particular to the “Korean tribe” in the School of Criminal Justice: Sujung Cho, Sung Hwan Joo, Hyejin Kim, JeeYearn Kim, Doyun Koo, YongJei Lee, Hyung Jin Lim, SooHyun O, Insun Park (and her sister Jeeyeon), and Hyunjung Shim (in alphabetical order). They helped me adjust to a new environment successfully and comforted me when I felt homesick. I am appreciative of all the laughs and chagrins we had together.