Sustaining Soil Productivity in Response to Global Climate Change Science, Policy, and Ethics SSauer_ffirs.inddauer_ffirs.indd i 55/10/2011/10/2011 44:47:33:47:33 PPMM Primary Sponsor Major Sponsors Co-Sponsors SSauer_ffirs.inddauer_ffirs.indd iiii 55/10/2011/10/2011 44:47:33:47:33 PPMM Sustaining Soil Productivity in Response to Global Climate Change Science, Policy, and Ethics Editors THOMAS J. SAUER JOHN M. NORMAN MANNAVA V. K. SIVAKUMAR A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication SSauer_ffirs.inddauer_ffirs.indd iiiiii 55/10/2011/10/2011 44:47:34:47:34 PPMM This edition fi rst published 2011 © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Wiley-Blackwell is an imprint of John Wiley & Sons, formed by the merger of Wiley’s global Scientifi c, Technical and Medical business with Blackwell Publishing. 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Sustaining soil productivity in response to global climate change : science, policy, and ethics / editors, Thomas J. Sauer, John M. Norman, Mannava V. K. Sivakumar. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-470-95857-5 (hardback) ISBN-10: 0-470-95857-X (hardback) 1. Soil management. 2. Sustainable agriculture. 3. Greenhouse gas mitigation. I. Sauer, Thomas J. II. Norman, John M III. Sivakumar, M. V. K. S591.S8985 2011 333.76′16–dc23 2011012031 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. This book is published in the following electronic formats: ePDF 9780470960226; Wiley Online Library 9780470960257; ePub 9780470960233; Mobi 9780470960240. Set in 10.5/12pt Times by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India 1 2011 SSauer_ffirs.inddauer_ffirs.indd iivv 55/10/2011/10/2011 44:47:35:47:35 PPMM Contents Contributors xi Foreword by Sally Collins xv Introduction xvii Chapter 1 Science, Ethics, and the Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis: Was White Right? 3 Thomas J. Sauer and Michael P. Nelson 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Historical Perspective on Soil Degradation 4 1.3 The New Challenge of Global Climate Change 5 1.4 White 8 1.5 Other Views on the Ethics of Land Use: Leopold et al. 9 1.6 Ethical Considerations of Strategies for Climate Change Mitigation: An Example 11 1.7 Conclusions 13 Acknowledgements 14 Chapter 2 Intellectual Inertia: An Uneasy Tension between Collective Validation of the Known and Encouraging Exploration of the Unknown 17 John M. Norman 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Defining Intellectual Inertia 17 2.3 Examples of Intellectual Inertia 18 2.4 Intellectual Inertia is Unavoidable But Requires Vigilance 21 2.5 Intellectual Inertia and Climate Change Science 23 2.6 Optimizing Intellectual Inertia 26 Chapter 3 The Ethics of Soil: Stewardship, Motivation, and Moral Framing 31 Paul B. Thompson 3.1 Introduction 31 3.2 Private Property and Personal Ethics 32 3.3 Common Pool Resources 33 3.4 Public Policy 35 3.5 Instrumental Values of Soil 36 3.6 Beyond Instrumental Value 38 3.7 Conclusion and Next Steps 40 v SSauer_ftoc.inddauer_ftoc.indd v 55/9/2011/9/2011 111:52:571:52:57 PPMM vi CONTENTS Chapter 4 Aldo Leopold and the Land Ethic: An Argument for Sustaining Soils 43 Susan L. Flader 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 The Shaping of a Progressive 43 4.3 Erosion as a Menace 45 4.4 Standards of Conservation 46 4.5 Conservation as a Moral Issue 47 4.6 Wildlife and Soils 49 4.7 The Conservation Ethic 50 4.8 An Adventure in Cooperative Conservation 52 4.9 Land Pathology 55 4.10 Land Health 56 4.11 The Land Ethic 59 4.12 Epilogue 61 Chapter 5 Rural Response to Climate Change in Poor Countries: Ethics, Policies, and Scientific Support Systems in Their Agricultural Environment 67 C. J. (Kees) Stigter 5.1 Introduction 67 5.2 Ethics 68 5.3 Policies 69 5.4 Scientific Support Systems 71 5.5 Conclusions 75 Chapter 6 Soil and Human Health 79 Eiliv Steinnes 6.1 Introduction 79 6.2 Essential Trace Elements 80 6.3 Concerns for the Future 84 Chapter 7 Agroecological Approaches to Help “Climate Proof ” Agriculture While Raising Productivity in the Twenty-First Century 87 Norman Uphoff 7.1 Introduction 87 7.2 Agroecological Approaches 88 7.3 The System of Rice Intensification 90 7.4 Effects of SRI Practices on Agriculture Affected by Climate Change 93 7.5 Applications to Crops Other than Rice 97 7.6 Climate-Proofing Agriculture 98 Chapter 8 Ecological Integrity and Biological Integrity: The Right to Food 103 Laura Westra 8.1 Introduction 103 8.2 Ecological Integrity and Food Production Today 104 8.3 The Legal Status of Genetically Modified Organisms 110 8.4 Western Diets and Lifestyle Preferences: Vegan versus Carnivore 112 8.5 Conclusion 113 SSauer_ftoc.inddauer_ftoc.indd vvii 55/9/2011/9/2011 111:52:571:52:57 PPMM CONTENTS vii Chapter 9 Soil Ecosystem Services: Sustaining Returns on Investment into Natural Capital 117 Brent E. Clothier, Alistair J. Hall, Markus Deurer, Steven R. Green, and Alec D. Mackay 9.1 Introduction 117 9.2 F. H. King—“Farmers of Forty Centuries” 118 9.3 Soil: Valuable Natural Capital 120 9.4 Valuing Ecosystem Services 123 9.5 Valuing Carbon and Soil Ecosystem Services 125 9.6 Valuing Terroir 129 9.7 Land-Use Policy, Nutrient Management, and Natural Capital 133 9.8 Conclusion 136 Chapter 10 Climate and Land Degradation 141 Mannava V. K. Sivakumar 10.1 Introduction 141 10.2 Influence of Land Surface Changes on Climate 142 10.3 Climate Change and Land Degradation 142 10.4 Climate Variability and Impacts on Land Degradation 145 10.5 Technologies, Policies, and Measures to Address the Linkages between Climate and Land Degradation 151 10.6 Future Perspectives 151 Chapter 11 The Role of Soils and Biogeochemistry in the Climate and Earth System 155 Elisabeth A. Holland 11.1 Introduction 155 11.2 Lessons Learned from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 155 11.3 The Carbon Cycle 159 11.4 The Nitrogen Cycle 163 11.5 Future of Earth System Models 165 Chapter 12 Net Agricultural Greenhouse Gases: Mitigation Strategies and Implications 169 Claudia Wagner-Riddle and Alfons Weersink 12.1 Introduction 169 12.2 Mitigation Practices for Reduction of Net GHG Emissions 170 12.3 Net GHG Reduction 172 12.4 Case Study 1: GHG Emission Mitigation through Composting of Liquid Swine Manure 172 12.5 Case Study 2: Direct and Indirect N2O Emission Reduction through Soil Tillage and Nitrogen Fertilizer Management Practices 174 12.6 Designing Policies for Reduced Nitrogen Fertilizer Use 175 12.7 Conclusion 180 SSauer_ftoc.inddauer_ftoc.indd vviiii 55/9/2011/9/2011 111:52:571:52:57 PPMM viii CONTENTS Chapter 13 Overview on Response of Global Soil Carbon Pools to Climate and Land-Use Changes 183 Thomas Eglin, Philippe Ciais, Shi Long Piao, Pierre Barré, Valentin Belassen, Patricia Cadule, Claire Chenu, Thomas Gasser, Markus Reichstein, and Pete Smith 13.1 Introduction 183 13.2 Global Distribution of SOC 183 13.3 Global Vulnerability of SOC to Climate and Land-Use Change 185 13.4 Historical Land Cover, Agricultural Management, and Climate Change Effects on SOC 186 13.5 Future Changes in Climate and Land Use and the SOC Balance 190 13.6 Discussion: Uncertainties and Future Directions 192 13.7 Conclusions 193 13.8 Methods 194 Acknowledgement 195 Chapter 14 Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Microbial Function in Soil: The Effect of Elevated CO2 Concentration 201 Paolo Nannipieri 14.1 Introduction 201 14.2 Effect of CO2 Concentration on Plant C Inputs including Rhizodeposition to Soil 202 14.3 Effects of Elevated CO2 Concentration on Activity, Size, and Composition of Soil Microbiota 203 14.4 Effects of Elevated CO2 Concentration on Mycorrhizal Infections of Plants 205 14.5 Effect of Elevated CO2 Concentration on Biotic Interactions and on the Rhizosphere Microfauna 205 14.6 Effects of Increased CO2 Concentration, Global Warming, and Changes in Soil Moisture on Microbial Functions Related to C Sequestration in Soil 206 14.7 Conclusions 208 Chapter 15 Impacts of Climate Change on Forest Soil Carbon: Uncertainties and Lessons from Afforestation Case Studies 213 Philip J.