American University in Cairo AUC Knowledge Fountain Theses and Dissertations 2-1-2017 Use of hate speech in Arabic language newspapers Sarah Eissa Follow this and additional works at: https://fount.aucegypt.edu/etds Recommended Citation APA Citation Eissa, S. (2017).Use of hate speech in Arabic language newspapers [Master’s thesis, the American University in Cairo]. AUC Knowledge Fountain. https://fount.aucegypt.edu/etds/334 MLA Citation Eissa, Sarah. Use of hate speech in Arabic language newspapers. 2017. American University in Cairo, Master's thesis. AUC Knowledge Fountain. https://fount.aucegypt.edu/etds/334 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by AUC Knowledge Fountain. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of AUC Knowledge Fountain. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The American University in Cairo School of Global Affairs and Public Policy USE OF HATE SPEECH IN ARABIC LANGUAGE NEWSPAPERS A Thesis Submitted to the Department of Journalism and Mass Communication in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts by Sarah M. Eissa Under the supervision of Dr. Naila Hamdy ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank everyone who helped me throughout my master’s journey, including all my professors who enriched me with knowledge and information that helped me to reach this stage, my gratitude is endless. This would have not been done without your constant generous guidance and valuable feedback Dr. Naila Hamdy. Thank you for all your precious effort, support, encouragement and always being there despite your busy schedule. Thank you mum for always being there (literally) and always motivating and pushing me forward. Thank you for embracing me with your love, support, and encouragement during my up and down moments. Thank you for your prayers, for bearing with my nonsense and crazy moments. I can keep going on, but thanking you will never be enough to your countless support, love and effort. Thank you my family and siblings (Ahmad, Shaymaa, Mariam) for your constant support, motivation, and bearing with my difficult times. Youssef, Khadiga and Mostafa thank you for being there and understanding when I am not there. Thank you Yasmine Kasseb for your ongoing support and for your generosity in doing the coding and bearing with everything that happened in-between (I understand it was hard… really hard). Thank you so much Esraa Fayez for your generosity in doing the inter-coder reliability. Thank you Amira Hosny for your constant support, and motivation since day one, I am glad we were together throughout this journey. Thank you Mohamed Gameel for all your continuous and generous support, help, tips and advice throughout the thesis. Thank you my reader’s committee Dr. Rasha Allam and Professor Firas Al-Atraqchi for your time, effort and valuable feedback. II ABSTRACT This research aims to examine hate speech in the Egyptian Arabic language newspapers, through examining the front page of the three dailies, the state-owned Al-Ahram newspaper, the privately-owned newspaper Al-Masry Al-Youm and the partisan newspaper Al-Wafd. The study’s time span starts from June 30, 2012 to June 30, 2015. The analysis for the study is based on the framing and agenda-setting theories in order to find how hate speech is framed and whether the speech is affected by a governmental agenda. The research uses the quantitative method of content analysis to examine the total of 111 front pages. The research found that hate speech was used more by the privately-owned Al-Masry Al-Youm newspaper followed by Al-Wafd party newspaper, and finally by the state-owned Al-Ahram newspaper. The major sources of hate speech were journalists who used hate speech in their own words in their writing and reporting, the major hate speech victims were Islamists followed by others and the major type of hate speech used was stereotype, and finally the media professionals generally did not try to combat hate speech. Key words: Hate speech, Egypt, newspapers, framing, agenda-setting. III TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................... 7 I.1 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................................... 9 I.2 Significance of the Research ................................................................................................ 10 Chapter II ............................................................................................................................... 12 EGYPTIAN MEDIA BACKGROUND ............................................................................... 12 II.1 Egyptian Media Landscape .................................................................................................... 12 II.2 Historical Background ........................................................................................................ 13 The Media under Abd El-Nasser’s Ruling Period - (1954-1970) ........................................... 13 II.3 Media under Al-Sadat Ruling Period - (1970-1981)......................................................... 14 II.4 Pre-Revolution Media ......................................................................................................... 15 Media under Mubarak’s Ruling Period - (1981-2011) ............................................................ 15 II.5 The Media During the 18-day Revolution - (25 January-11 February 2011) ................ 19 II.6 Post-revolution..................................................................................................................... 20 Supreme Council of Armed Forces - (12 February 2011 – 29 June 2012) ............................ 20 II.7 The Media under Morsi’s Rule - (30 June 2013 – 3 July 2013) ....................................... 21 II.8 The Media under Mansour’s Ruling Period – (3 July 2013 –8 June 2014) .................... 24 II.9 The Media under President Al-Sisi’s Ruling Period ........................................................ 27 Chapter III .............................................................................................................................. 30 LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................... 30 III.1 Hate Speech Definitions .................................................................................................... 30 III.2 Is Hate Speech Free Speech? ............................................................................................ 33 III.3 US. and European Regulations ......................................................................................... 39 III.4 Hate Speech and International Treaties .......................................................................... 45 III.5 Freedom of Speech and Laws Combating Hate Speech in Egypt ................................. 47 III.7 Effects of Hate Speech ....................................................................................................... 64 III.8 Hate Speech Leads to Genocide (Rwanda’s Case) .......................................................... 69 III.9 Hate Media Leads to Civil War (Bosnia’s Case) ............................................................ 74 Chapter IV .............................................................................................................................. 80 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ....................................................................................... 80 IV.1 Framing Theory ..................................................................................................................... 80 IV.2 Frame Building and Frame Setting .................................................................................. 84 IV.3 Framing Effect ................................................................................................................... 85 IV.4 Agenda-Setting Theory ...................................................................................................... 87 IV.5 Agenda Setting Attributes and Levels .............................................................................. 89 IV.6 Need for Orientation .......................................................................................................... 90 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................ 93 V.1 Research Questions .................................................................................................................. 93 V.2 Quantitative Approach: Content Analysis ........................................................................ 93 V.3 Defining the Universe .......................................................................................................... 95 V.4 Population (Sample) ............................................................................................................ 96 V.5 Unit of Analysis and Operationalization ........................................................................... 97 V.6 Inter-coder Reliability ....................................................................................................... 100 Chapter VI ............................................................................................................................ 101 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................................