ILLUMINATING THE PAST: ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING IN AMERICA (1610-1930) AND A GUIDE TO LIGHTING HISTORIC HOUSE MUSEUMS by DEEPANNITA GHOSH (Under the Direction of MARK E. REINBERGER) ABSTRACT Today, with a wide array of resources available, we are able to manipulate artificial light to suit our physical and psychological needs. This belies the lighting conditions of the past when houses were lit only by a few candles or oil lamps. This thesis attempts to provide an understanding of artificial lighting in domestic interiors in America from 1610-1930 in terms of the fuels used, the evolving technologies and spatial relations between the users, fixtures and architectural elements, and the various aesthetic movements that influenced the style of lighting. It also discusses and analyzes the challenges of lighting historic house museums, where light has to satisfy the conflicting criteria of aiding the viewing of the historic interiors and art objects, minimizing photochemical damage and creating an authentic period setting. Based on these issues, a set of guidelines has been provided as an aid to lighting historic house museums. INDEX WORDS: History of Artificial Lighting, Period Light Fixtures, Lighting Styles, Lighting Restoration, Lighting Historic House Museums, Colonial Lighting, Federal Light Fixtures, Gothic Light Fixtures, Victorian Light Fixtures, Greek Revival Light Fixtures, Early Modern Light Fixtures, Art Nouveau Light Fixtures, Candles, Candlesticks, Chandeliers, Girandoles, Sconces, Hall Lamps, Lanterns, Rushlight, Crusie Lamps, Betty Lamps, Argand Lamps, Astral Lamps, Sinumbra Lamps, Student Lamps, Welbsach Lamps, Inverted Gas Mantles, Whale Oil Lamps, Kerosene Lamps, Burning Fluid Lamps, Camphene, Gaslight, Gas-electric Combination Fixtures, Early Electric Lamps, Early Bulbs, Tiffany Lamps, Dirk Van Erp, Thomas A. Edison, Joseph Swan, Reproduction Light Fixtures, Rewiring of Light Fixtures, Wiring of Historic Houses, Daylight Control, Solar Films, Ultraviolet Protection for Historic Interiors. ILLUMINATING THE PAST: ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING IN AMERICA (1610-1930) AND A GUIDE TO LIGHTING HISTORIC HOUSE MUSEUMS by DEEPANNITA GHOSH B.Arch., Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India, 2001 A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF HISTORIC PRESERVATION ATHENS, GEORGIA 2004 © 2004 Deepannita Ghosh All Rights Reserved ILLUMINATING THE PAST: ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING IN AMERICA (1610-1930) AND A GUIDE TO LIGHTING HISTORIC HOUSE MUSEUMS by DEEPANNITA GHOSH Major Professor: Mark E. Reinberger Committee: John C. Waters Thomas L. Houser Jeanne Strong Electronic Version Approved: Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia May 2004 iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to extend my deep gratitude to my Major Professor, Dr. Mark E. Reinberger, for his advice provided in all aspects of the thesis, from content development, presentation, to proofreading. I am also grateful to my committee members - Prof. John C. Waters, Prof. Thomas L. Houser and Ms. Jeanne Strong - for their valuable inputs, ideas and criticism that helped shape the thesis. I would also like to thank following friends: Nikhil Kaza for his encouragement and support throughout the compilation of this work; Maria Chinwala for our walks and talks that provided the pleasant breaks from thesis work; Jaya Halepete for the comfort of knowing there is someone I can turn to at times of distress; Rajeev Prabhakar for his insightful comments on my work, his guidance for my thesis presentation and for the love and assurance I needed to complete this thesis. A special thanks to my sister for her love and faith in me. Lastly, wholehearted thanks must go to my parents for their hard work and perseverance that have helped me achieve my goals in life, and for always standing by me. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................iv LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................1 II A HISTORY OF LIGHTING FUELS AND LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES..............8 III LIGHT FIXTURES IN THE HOME: 1610 to 1930 ...................................................42 IV LIGHTING OF HISTORIC HOUSE MUSEUMS....................................................159 V SUMMARY GUIDELINES FOR LIGHTING HISTORIC HOUSE MUSEUMS...223 BIBLIOGRPAHY........................................................................................................................232 APPENDICES A TIMELINE OF LIGHTING IN DOMESTIC INTERIORS: 1610-1930 ..................237 B REQUIRED LIGHT LEVELS FOR INDOOR ACTIVITIES ..................................238 C RECOMMENDED ULTRAVIOLET AND VISIBLE LIGHT LEVELS FOR HISTORIC INTERIORS.......................................................................................239 vi LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1: Parts of an Argand Lamp................................................................................................15 Figure 2: Parts of an Astral Lamp ..................................................................................................17 Figure 3: Parts of a Kerosene Lamp...............................................................................................21 Figure 4: Replica of the First Incandescent Bulb Demonstrated by Thomas Edison in 1879 .......31 Figure 5: 1893 Incandescent Bulb with a Looped Squirted Cellulose Filament ...........................34 Figure 6: Edison GEM bulb in 1909..............................................................................................36 Figure 7: Edison Mazda Lamp of 1910 .........................................................................................39 Figure 8: Edison Mazda Lamp of 1911 with Continuously Drawn Filament................................40 Figure 9: The Interiors of a Colonial House in Ipswich, Massachusetts, c.1650 ..........................43 Figure 10: Splint-holder.................................................................................................................45 Figure 11: Iron Rush Holder with Counterweight .........................................................................45 Figure 12: Iron Double Crusie or Phoebe Lamp............................................................................46 Figure 13: Iron Betty Lamps..........................................................................................................46 Figure 14: Tin Betty on a Tin Stand ..............................................................................................49 Figure 15: A Seventeenth-century Trestle Table Used as a Candle Stand ....................................51 Figure 16: Pricket Candlestick on Four-legged Iron Stand ...........................................................53 Figure 17: Drip-pan Candleholder .................................................................................................53 Figure 18: Candleholder with a Slide Ejector................................................................................55 Figure 19: Spiral-ejector Candleholder..........................................................................................55 vii Figure 20: Typical Colonial Brass Candlestick .............................................................................56 Figure 21: Tin Candle Sconces with Reflective Backs..................................................................58 Figure 22: Eighteenth-century Chandelier with Wood Turned Center Shaft and Curved Sheet Metal Arms....................................................................................................................58 Figure 23: Chandelier with a Large Sheet Metal Ring ..................................................................59 Figure 24: Eighteenth-century Chandelier with a Double Cone Center, Curved Arms, Fluted Cups and Fluted Canopy.........................................................................................................59 Figure 25: Twin Pendant Candleholder of Tinned Sheet Iron with Shade ....................................61 Figure 26: Pendant Candleholder...................................................................................................61 Figure 27: Early Candle Lanterns ..................................................................................................62 Figure 28: Hurricane Glass Shades................................................................................................64 Figure 29: Two Wooden and One Iron Colonial Candle Stand .....................................................64 Figure 30: Typical Federal Period Parlor.......................................................................................65 Figure 31: Hog-scraper ..................................................................................................................68 Figure 32: Double Candle Student Lamp ......................................................................................70 Figure 33: Group of Dolphin Candlesticks....................................................................................70 Figure 34: Bennington Earthenware Candlesticks.........................................................................72 Figure 35: Adam Style Glass Chandelier.......................................................................................72