CHAPTER 6 WHAT “WE” MEAN BY EUROPE: CHARACTERISTICS AND QUALITIES “Metaphors have a way of holding the most truth in the least space.” ― Orson Scott Card, Alvin Journeyman “Slovo. Kniha. Příběh. Když mi myšlenka uniká, nakreslím ji. Nebo pro ni najdu slovo. Spoutám neurčitý dojem do objektu. To, co bylo volné, je zotročeno, co bylo prchavé je zhmotněno slovem. To je zajímavá vlastnost slov: vyslovena, tuhnou jako beton. Konkrétní slova, abstraktní, zkrátka všechna. Když říkám „moře“, nemyslím na vlny šplouchající podél písečných pláží, fluoreskující ryby v hlubinách, korálové útesy, Golfský proud, vlajíci chaluhy a ocelově šedou barvu severu. Místo toho se kupodivu spokojim s nehybnou betonovou cihlou slova. Moře. Pravda.” ― Filip Dušek, Hejno bez ptáků In the previous chapters I’ve looked at the people considered to represent the European imagined community (the Cast and Characters chapter) and its members’ relationships with Others (Turn the Other Greek chapter). Therefore the last remaining item on the checklist is the community’s values and characteristics. As my operationalization would have it (see Figure 3.11 in the Method and Operationalization chapter; p. 149) this chapter should be focusing on the commonly shared stereotypes, pop culture references and literary allusions, archetypes, metaphors, social status; gender, racial, health and other characteristics of the EU and its members. However, because of the overlapping nature of the three-pronged identity definition (see Figure 2.5, page 89), some of these elements have already been dealt with in the previous chapters; I’ve already looked at the stereotypes associated with Europe and its Others as well as the social roles Europe and its Other(s) assume (see the result in Figure 5.3 page 237 234). Therefore the remaining items to tackle are the popular culture and literary allusions and metaphors used when talking about Europe and European politics. Medhurst and DeSousa write in their study of graphic (cartoon) discourse that cartoonists use a variety of “inventional topoi” to construct their subject matter, be it “political commonplaces, literary/cultural allusions, personal character traits, and situational themes”; in other words “topics which are available to any cartoonist working within a modern nation-state” (1981: 199-200). Of course, I am keenly aware that the European Union is not a nation-state, yet what Medhurst and DeSousa are saying is that the cartoonists operating within a given community make use of such inventional commonplaces that are readily understood within that community. Ernst Gombrich wrote on popular culture and literary allusions that “[e]very culture and every language contain innumerable references to a common stock of knowledge which are not felt to be allusions because they are immediately accessible to anyone” (Gombrich 1963: 133, my emphasis). In other words still, there should exist within an imagined community some common pool of inventional topoi that is intersubjectively shared and understood by the community members – the very things “we” have in common – in form of shared political commonplaces, cultural and literary allusions etc. Thus, in this chapter, I shall be looking for that common pool of topics, the common stock of knowledge accessible to the members of the community used for political cartoon creation, as these topoi, especially the cultural and literary allusions point to some common cultural roots and heritage, and narratives that have values as a shared imagination. 6.1 Greek Mythology In the Cast and Characters chapter, I have already established a link to the ancient Greek mythological past, as the Legend of Europa comes alive in the sketches of political 238 cartoonists to represent the European Union. Furthermore, as most of the crisis cartoons paid attention to Greek economic difficulties, it is perhaps not too surprising that most of the commonly shared cultural allusions from Greek mythology. The pervasiveness of Greek myths as a shared pool of allusions is virtually inescapable. Every newspaper, every cartoon artist at some point made reference to Greek myths. The most popular out of these was definitely the legend about Sisyphus in his punishment endlessly rolling a boulder up a hill (see Illustration 6.1 – 6.9). This motive can be found across the whole core sample in Austria, Germany, Slovakia and the United Kingdom. Usually it is the Greeks in the role of Sisyphus pushing a boulder (or the Euro) up a hill with European representatives standing by and evaluating. Klaus Stuttmann of Germany interpreted the myth slightly differently though, and put Merkel in the role of Sisyphus shouldering the tremendous burden of the rescue packages (see Illustration 6.4). Slovakia’s Jozef Gertli Danglár improvised on the topic as well; in his cartoon he put Slovakia in the role of the (German) Euro rescuer (see Illustration 6.6). Another powerful myth and commonly shared imagination is the myth of Scylla and Charybdis (see Illustrations 6.10 – 6.11 and 6.12 – 6.15). Scylla and Charybdis are mythical sea hazards (a monster on a rock shoal and a deep-sea whirlpool) so close to one another as to be practically inescapable. The meaning of the myth implies an impossibility of choice between two evils, and it too has been utilized by the cartoonists across the sample to comment on the Greek situation. The Austrian cartoonists Thomas Wizany and Oliver Schopf make use of the myth in its original form (see Illustrations 6.10 and 6.11), others such as Peter Schrank of The Independent implies the same meaning, just using a different literary allusion - between the devil and the deep blue sea(see Illustration 6.12). But he too puts the Greeks between the rock and a hard place. More cartoonists “freestyle” on the whirlpool motive and the Pirates of the Caribbean Curse of the Aegis film in Austria (see Illustration 6.13), Slovakia (see 6.14) or United Kingdom (6.15). 239 I’ve hinted already at the otherworld motive of crossing over the river Styx. This myth has been shared between Germany’s Heiko Sakurai (see Illustration 6.16) and United Kingdom’s Peter Schrank of The Independent (see Illustration 6.17). Both cartoons imply a hopeless situation for the Greeks, the threat of bankruptcy as the ultimate and imminent catastrophe is underlined by the deathly ferryman. Of course, Greek mythology is not exhausted by the three myths outlined above. Cartoonists across the whole sample, without exception, tap into an assortment of other ancient Greek narratives and imaginations to illustrate a whole range of situations from election results (visit to the Oracle) to financial markets ratings (gladiator fights) (see Illustrations 6.18 – 6.46). Thomas Wizany mobilized the Hercules commonplace to introduce his readers to the difficult chores facing the Greek government (6.18 and 6.19). The same tale was used by Heiko Sakurai of Germany, but he decided to picture Angela Merkel as the hero Hercules (see Illustration 6.20). Again, this is very much in line with the shared perception of Merkel being a powerful leader (see subchapter Angela the Great p. 184). Another mythical commonplace shared by the two Austrian dailies, the British Independent newspaper and also the French Le Monde feature the Oracle of Delphi (see Illustrations 6.21 – 6.24) – famous for her prophecies. The motive is used across contexts: the Greek referendum on further austerity measures demanded by the Troika in exchange for further loans, on stalemate electoral results or in the context of the rumoured “Grexit”. Plantu creatively uses Pythia’s prophecies as a commonplace for rating agencies critique. The cartoonists also liked to exploit the general idea of ancient philosophers’ deliberations; this allusion has been used mainly in Austria and Germany (see Illustrations 6.25 – 6.28). Very interesting here is the transcendence of the philosophers 240 narrative to European politics – when Oliver Schopf commented on José Manuel Barroso’s State of the Union speech suggesting a “federation of nation states”. Again, what the meanings of these philosophical cartoons share are slight contradictions: federations of nation states, excessive yet now meaningless (6.28), elected but useless (6.26)… Still other common cultural mythical allusions include references to ancient Gods of Olympus (see Illustrations 6.29 – 6.32) in Austria, Germany and Slovakia; visual comparisons with the Minotaur labyrinth in Austrian and German cartoons suggesting hopelessness or at least a hard way back to its feet for Greeks once the crisis is over, as both cartoons were published towards the end of the “Greek discourse (see Charts 5.1 and 5.2; p. 212-213) (see Illustrations 6.33 – 6.34). Austrian cartoonists in particular likened the state of the Greek economy to the Augian stables, which supposedly housed the most cattle in Greece at the time yet had never been cleaned until Hercules came along, which is a shorthand for great mess (see Illustration 6.35 and compare with 5.54). I’ve already mentioned Draco and his tough laws, which can be compared in principle to the Herculean tasks already described above (see Illustration 6.36). Other singular myths cracked open by the cartoonists are the Cyclops myth implying a fight against a huge one-eyed monster (see Illustration 6.37), the Sirens’ calling myth (see Illustration 6.38) or the myth of the terrible Gorgon with snakes for hair and a petrifying look explored by Jean “Plantu” Plantureux of Le Monde (see Illustration 6.39). Trojan horse myth of subversion was utilized as a commonplace by the British Independent and surprisingly by the Czech MF Dnes newspapers (see Illustrations 6.40 and 6.41) although in different contexts: the meaning of subversion is clearly implied in both cases, although in the first British case, Dave Brown criticizes the behind-the-scenes control of Greek government by the Troika creditors; in the Czech case it seem precisely the opposite – the Greeks being a threat to Europe and the Euro represented here by the European Central Bank.