From Feminism to Class Politics The Rise and Decline of Women's Politics in Reykjavik, 1908-1922 Auòur Styrkârsdottir ^ 1 V£ * va O • V From Feminism to Class Politics The Rise and Decline of Women's Politics in Reykjavik, 1908-1922 AKADEMISK AVHANDLING Som med vederbörligt tillstånd av rektorsämbetet vid Umeå universitet för vinnande av filosofie doktorsexamen framlägges till offentlig granskning vid statsvetenskapliga institutionen Hörsal C, Samhällsvetarhuset Fredagen den 15 januari 1999, kl. 13.15 av Auöur Styrkarsdottir M.A. From Feminism to Class Politics: The Rise and Decline of Women's Politics in Iceland, 1908- 1922. Auòur Styrkarsdóttir. Department of Political Science, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden. ISBN 91-7191-541-9 ISSN 0349-0831 Research Report 1998: 6. Distribution: Department of Political Science, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden. Abstract The main objective of this dissertation is to seek answers to three questions: 1) Why did it take so much longer for women than men to win the vote? 2) Why did it take women so long to be elected in any numbers to national legislatures?, and 3) What has been the political significance of wo men's entry into national legislatures? The answers are sought by examining an aspect of the development of p arties ignored by most political scientists, namely the relationship between women's suffrage, party politics and patriarchal power. An empirical study on Iceland is used to examine this aspect in detail. In the period 1908- 1926, women in Iceland ran separate lists at local and national elections. The fate of the women's lists in Reykjavik is explored and so are the policies of women councillors. Iceland was not the only country to see the emergence of separate women's political organizations that ran candidates at elections. The outcome was nowhere as successful as in Iceland. Through the rise, and decline, of the women's lists and women's policies in Reykjavik, the factors that allowed women to carry out their own maternalistic politics within a male-run system are illuminated. The dissertation draws on numerous theories and postulations within political science. It also challenges many of them. Theda Skocpol's structured policy approach proves highly useful in examining the larger political environment and factors that stimulated or hindered women's politics and policies in Reykjavik. The approach does not, however, account for male power as a force on its own. The structured policy approach is challenged by providing another important factor, the role of individuals and their ideas as a political force. The conclusion is that patriarchal theories are needed within political science, and it is suggested that political parties, their origin and working methods, provide excellent starting points from which to examine male power, or patriarchy, as a political force of its own. Key words: Women, women's movements, women's lists, women in local governments, structured policy approach, neo-institutionalism, patriarchal theories, parties, Reykjavik, Iceland. From Feminism to Class Politics Department of Political Science Umeå University, Sweden ISBN 91-7191-541-9 ISSN 0349-0831 Research Report 1998: 6 © Auôur Styrkarsdóttir Printed at Prentsmiöjan Oddi hf. From Feminism to Class Politics The Rise and Decline of Women's Politics in Reykjavik, 1908-1922 Auòur Styrkarsdóttir Umeå University Department of Political Science 1998 From Feminism to Class Politics: The Rise and Decline of Women's Politics in Iceland, 1908- 1922. Auòur Styrkarsdóttir. Department of Political Science, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden. ISBN 91-7191-541-9 ISSN 0349-0831 Research Report 1998: 6. Distribution: Department of Political Science, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden. Abstract The main objective of this dissertation is to seek answers to three questions: 1) Why did it take so much longer for women than men to win the vote? 2) Why did it take women so long to be elected in any numbers to national legislatures?, and 3) What has been the political significance of wom en's entry into national legislatures? The answers are sought by examining an aspect of the development of part ies ignored by most political scientists, namely the relationship between women's suffrage, party politics and patriarchal power. An empirical study on Iceland is used to examine this aspect in detail. In the period 1908- 1926, women in Iceland ran separate lists at local and national elections. The fate of th e women's lists in Reykjavik is explored and so are the policies of women councillors. Iceland was not the only country to see the emergence of separate women's political organizations that ran candidates at elections. The outcome was nowhere as successful as in Iceland. Through the rise, and decline, of the women's lists and women's policies in Reykjavik, the factors that allowed women to carry out their own maternalistic politics within a male-run system are illuminated. The dissertation draws on numerous theories and postulations within political science. It also challenges many of them. Theda Skocpol's structured policy approach proves highly useful in examining the larger political environment and factors that stimulated or hindered women's politics and policies in Reykjavik. The approach does not, however, account for male power as a force on its own. The structured policy approach is challenged by providing another important factor, the role of individuals and their ideas as a political force. The conclusion is that patriarchal theories are needed within political science, and it is suggested that political parties, their origin and working methods, provide excellent starting points from which to examine male power, or patriarchy, as a political force of its own. Key words: Women, women's movements, women's lists, women in local governments, structured policy approach, neo-institutionalism, patriarchal theories, parties, Reykjavik, Iceland. iv Contents Acknowledgements vii Introduction 1 The Story of the Project 3 A Note on Sources and Methods 7 A Note on References 8 The Plan of the Dissertation 9 Parti 1.1. Theory and method: 13 Political Science and Women. Introduction 13 Political Science and Women 14 Political Theory: A Promising Beginning 18 The Lessons to be Learnt 21 The Theoretical Paucity of the 20th Century 25 The Approach of My Study 29 Theorizing on Patriarchy 32 Methodological Considerations 35 1.2. Women's Suffrage, Politics and Patriarchal Power: 39 Women in Movement from Australia to Reykjavik. Introduction 39 Economic and Social Changes, 1700-1900 40 The Growing Sphere of Politics 41 The Effect on Women 47 Relative Deprivation and 19th Century Women 49 The Multiple Strands of Feminism 53 The IWSA and the Feminist Project 56 Iceland and International Feminism 62 Partii II.1. Icelandic Society and Politics, 1845-1920: 69 From Democratic Politics to Patronage. Introduction 69 Some Facts and Figures 69 The Changing Class Structure 71 The Emergence of Modern Politics 72 From Danish Elitism to Icelandic Patronage 76 Democratic Politics and Women 81 The Rise of Political Feminism in Iceland 84 II.2. Developing Politics in Reykjavik: 89 Structures, Opportunities, Individuals. Introduction 89 Political Groups in Reykjavik, 1905-1918 89 Patronage and Vested Interest 94 Women: The First Organised Municipal Political Force 95 The Feminist Project 97 The Role of Individual Choices 99 V 11.3. Women's Lists in Reykjavik 1908-1918: 109 Maternalism and Emerging Class Politics Introduction 109 1. Victory of the Women's Lists, 1908 110 A Favourable Acceptance of Women 113 2. A Harsher Campaign, 1910 115 Fear of Servant-Girls 116 Election Results 117 Conflict Over Gas 120 Politics and Vested Interests 121 Women at Loggerheads 122 3. The Divisive Factor of 'Polities', 1912 123 Women's Movement on the Defensive 125 Political Complications 128 4. Decline, 1914 129 A Policy Statement in the Women's Paper 133 Politics and Women 134 5. Turning Point, 1916 135 Women Receive a Scolding 138 Briet Turns Her Coat 140 6. The End of th e Women's Lists, 1918 143 Women Form a Political Group: The Federation of Women 143 Establishment vs. Unions 146 Fear of the Worker 147 A Short Overview 149 11.4. Maternalistic Policies on the Town Council: 151 The Children, the Poor, andthe Sick. Introduction 151 A Note on Sources 151 Municipal Health 152 Children 155 The Primary School 157 Equal Pay at the Primary School and Further Developments 162 Poor Relief and the Worker's Employment Office... 163 ... and an Employment Office for Women 166 Public Canteens 166 Children's Home 168 Old People's Home 170 Brief Observations 170 11.5. Patriarchal Defences: 173 No Public Space for Women? Introduction 173 'A Good Start' 174 'Stinging Retort' 174 The Battle With the Mayor 175 Observations 181 Partili Summary and Conclusions 185 Introduction 185 The Results and Inferences of the Icelandic Study 187 A Return to Patriarchal Theories 193 The Road Ahead 197 Epilogue 201 References 203 vi Acknowledgements This project has followed me across continents and settled at various institutions at different periods, most often shuffled along with other ideas and projects. The idea began to form during the winter of 1976-1977 in Reykjavik, Iceland, and now ends in Umeå, Sweden. It goes without saying that during these tumultuous years of r eading, writing different pieces, and reading more, I enjoyed the company of many insightful and inspirational people. Some of them may not have been aware of the inspiration I claim to have gotten from them; others played a more direct role in seeing this project through. Let me mention a few of these people. Ólafur Ragnar Grimsson, former professor in political science at the University of Iceland, saw me through the first phase in the winter of 1976-77.