Published by the Ecological Society of America Number 4, Fall 1999 Maintaining NaturalLifeSupportProcesses Issues in EcologyBiodiversity andEcosystemFunctioning: Issues in Ecology Number 4 Fall 1999 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning: Maintaining Natural Life Support Processes by Shahid Naeem, Chair, F.S. Chapin III, Robert Costanza, Paul R. Ehrlich, Frank B. Golley, David U. Hooper, J.H. Lawton, Robert V. ONeill, Harold A. Mooney, Osvaldo E. Sala, Amy J. Symstad, and David Tilman Critical processes at the ecosystem level influence plant productivity, soil fertility, water quality, atmospheric chemistry, and many other local and global environmental conditions that ultimately affect human welfare. These ecosystem processes are controlled by both the diversity and identity of the plant, animal, and microbial species living within a community. Human modifications to the living community in an ecosystem as well as to the collective biodiversity of the earth can therefore alter ecological functions and life support services that are vital to the well-being of human societies. Substantial changes have already occurred, especially local and global losses of biodiversity. The primary cause has been widespread human transformation of once highly diverse natural ecosystems into relatively species-poor managed ecosystems. Recent studies suggest that such reductions in biodiversity can alter both the magnitude and the stability of ecosystem processes, especially when biodiversity is reduced to the low levels typical of many managed systems. Our review of the available evidence has identified the following certainties concerning biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: • Human impacts on global biodiversity have been dramatic, resulting in unprecedented losses in global biodiversity at all levels, from genes and species to entire ecosystems; • Local declines in biodiversity are even more dramatic than global declines, and the beneficial effects of many organisms on local processes are lost long before the species become globally extinct; • Many ecosystem processes are sensitive to declines in biodiversity; • Changes in the identity and abundance of species in an ecosystem can be as important as changes in biodiversity in influencing ecosystem processes. From current research, we have identified the following impacts on ecosystem functioning that often result from loss of biodiversity: • Plant production may decline as regional and local diversity declines; • Ecosystem resistance to environmental perturbations, such as drought, may be lessened as biodiversity is reduced; • Ecosystem processes such as soil nitrogen levels, water use, plant productivity, and pest and disease cycles may become more variable as diversity declines. Given its importance to human welfare, the maintenance of ecosystem functioning should be included as an integral part of national and international policies designed to conserve local and global biodiversity. Cover photo credits clockwise from top left: Jack Dykinga USDA/ARS, Scott Bauer USDA/ARS, USDA, Kevin Fitzsimmons/University of Arizona Aquaculture , stock photo, Nadine Lymn. 2 Issues in Ecology Number 4 Fall 1999 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning: Maintaining Natural Life Support Processes SUMMARY INTRODUCTION scales, biodiversity declines are already pronounced in many areas, especially where natural ecosystems have One of the most striking features of the earths biota been converted to croplands, timber plantations, is its extraordinary diversity, estimated to include about aquaculture and other managed ecosystems. The 10 million different species. One of the most conspicuous diversity of these managed ecosystems is often low, and aspects of contemporary global change is the rapid decline species composition very different, compared with those of this diversity in many ecosystems (Figure 1). The of the natural systems they have replaced (Figure 3). decline is not limited to increased rates of species What are the consequences of such declines in extinction, but includes losses in genetic and functional biodiversity and how might they affect human welfare? diversity across population, community, ecosystem, The earths living organisms contribute to human welfare landscape, and global scales (Figure 2). The term in a variety of ways. First, humans derive from them goods biodiversity refers collectively to all these aspects of and products essential to life, including food, medicine, biotic diversity. The wide-ranging decline in biodiversity and industrial products, genetic resources for crop results largely from habitat modifications and destruction, breeding, and natural pest control services. Such benefits increased rates of invasions by deliberately or accidentally can be viewed as the market values of biodiversity because introduced non-native species, over-exploitation and other they are are readily tied to our economy and often can human-caused impacts. be assigned a dollar value in the marketplace. Second, On a global scale, even at the lowest estimated current biodiversity has nonmarket values that can be expressed extinction rate, about half of all species could be extinct in terms such as knowledge, aesthetic, existence and other within 100 years. Such an event would be similar in values. These non-market values of biodiversity are difficult magnitude to the five mass extinction events in the 3.5 to quantify, but are, for many, sufficient justification for billion year history of life on earth. On local and regional preserving biodiversity independent of market values. Figure 1 - The predicted decline of biodiversity in association with increases in human populations. Estimates for global biodiversity loss are between 50 and 75% by 2100, but in many transformed habitats, such as crop farms, local declines of similar magnitude have already occurred. (From Soulé 1991 Science.) 1 Issues in Ecology Number 4 Fall 1999 Figure 2 - Biodiversity loss and the earths changing biomes. The top map shows the earths major biomes, such as graslands in orange and forests in blue, prior to the introduction of agri- culture. The bottom map shows the spread of agronomic and other man- aged ecosystems where red represents a region that is greater than 50% man- aged ecosystems. (After Sisk et al. 1994, BioScience) A third category of value, ecosystem services, is the to shed considerable light on the issue. These studies have focus of this report. The organisms that live, grow, shown that ecosystems are indeed sensitive to changes in reproduce, and interact within ecosystems help to mediate the numbers and kinds of species found in their communities. local and regional flows of energy and materials (Figure In this report, we provide an overview of ecosystem 4). Energy flow refers to the capture of light energy by functioning, review the distinction between taxonomic green plant or algal photosynthesis and its dispersal as biodiversity (i.e., species numbers) and functional biodiversity, chemical energy throughout the food web to plant- or and evaluate the current status of research concerning algal-feeding animals, predators, and eventually ecosystem responses to changes in biodiversity. decomposers. The flow of materials involves the recycling of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and other elements ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONING between living organisms and the air, water, and soil. These biologically mediated energy and materials flows Ecosystem functioning reflects the collective life contribute to many ecological or life support services that activities of plants, animals, and microbes and the effects benefit human welfare such as greenhouse gas regulation, these activities feeding, growing, moving, excreting water treatment, erosion control, soil quality control, and waste, etc. have on the physical and chemical conditions plant growth. Ecosystem services can also include cultural of their environment. (Note that functioning means benefits, such as religious, aesthetic, recreational, or showing activity and does not imply that organisms inspirational values that humans derive from ecosystems. perform purposeful roles in ecosystem-level processes.) Determining whether biodiversity per se is important A functioning ecosystem is one that exhibits biological to ecosystem functioning has been difficult, partly because and chemical activities characteristic for its type. A many of the factors such as habitat conversion that reduce functioning forest ecosystem, for example, exhibits rates local biodiversity also directly affect many ecological of plant production, carbon storage, and nutrient cycling processes, masking the more subtle impacts of species that are characteristic of most forests. If the forest is loss on functioning. Recent studies, however, have begun converted to an agroecosystem, its functioning changes. 4 Issues in Ecology Number 4 Fall 1999 Ecologists abstract the essential features of an BIODIVERSITY: SPECIES, FUNCTIONAL ecosystem into two compartments, the biotic and the TYPES, AND COMPOSITION abiotic. The biotic compartment consists of the community of species, which can be divided Although every organism contributes to ecosystem functionally into plant producers, the consumers that processes, the nature and magnitude of individual feed on producers and on each other, and the contributions vary considerably. Research in biodiversity decomposers (Figure 5). The abiotic compartment places much emphasis on the uniqueness of individual consists of organic and inorganic nutrient pools. Energy species