Semantic and Pragmatic Functions in Plains Cree Syntax Published by LOT phone: +31 30 253 6006 Trans 10 fax: +31 30 253 6406 3512 JK Utrecht e-mail: [email protected] The Netherlands http://www.lotschool.nl Cover illustration: designed by Arok Wolvengrey, it combines diagrams from the text including the Algonquian Circle of Reference and the links evident in the Cree Direct-Inverse system between Semantic Agency and Pragmatic Topicality. ISBN: 978-94-6093-051-5 NUR 616 Copyright © 2011: Arok Elessar Wolvengrey. All rights reserved. Semantic and Pragmatic Functions in Plains Cree Syntax ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof. dr. D.C. van den Boom ten overstaan van een door het college voor promoties ingestelde commissie, in het openbaar te verdedigen in de Agnietenkapel op dinsdag 22 februari 2011, te 10:00 uur door Arok Elessar Wolvengrey geboren te Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada Promotiecommissie Promotor: Prof. Dr. P.C. Hengeveld Overige leden: Prof. Dr. W.F.H. Adelaar Dr. P.J. Bakker Prof. Dr. W.J.J. Honselaar Dr. N.S.H. Smith Prof. Dr. F.P. Weerman Faculteit der Geesteswetenschappen Contents Contents i List of Tables v List of Figures ix Abbreviations xi Acknowledgements xv I Introduction to Cree Morphosyntax 1 1 Plains Cree, Grammar, and Cree Grammar 3 1.1 nēhiyawēwin: The Cree Language ............................................................3 1.1.1 Geographic and Genetic Location ..................................................5 1.1.2 Typological Background ...............................................................9 1.1.2.1 Phonology ....................................................................9 1.1.2.2 Morphology ................................................................ 11 1.1.2.2.1 Animacy .................................................. 12 1.1.2.2.2 Person ...................................................... 12 1.1.2.2.3 Obviation ................................................. 14 1.1.2.2.4 Verb Classification ...................................17 1.2 Some Important Components of Morphosyntax ......................................20 1.2.1 Word Order ................................................................................. 22 1.2.2 Case-Marking ............................................................................. 25 1.2.3 Alignment ................................................................................... 29 1.2.4 Intonation ................................................................................... 32 1.3 Some Potential Components of Cree Morphosyntax ............................... 33 1.3.1 Word Order ................................................................................. 34 1.3.2 Case-Marking ............................................................................. 37 1.3.3 Alignment ................................................................................... 40 1.3.4 Intonation ................................................................................... 41 1.4 Algonquian Studies, Functional Grammar and the Current Work ............ 42 1.4.1 Terminological Preliminaries ...................................................... 43 1.4.2 The Shapes of Things to Come .................................................... 45 i ii Contents 2 Animacy, Direct-Inverse Alignment and Semantic Functions 47 2.1 The Importance of Being Animate .......................................................... 47 2.2 Direct-Inverse Alignment: Person, Topicality, Agency and Animacy ......54 2.2.1 Universal and Algonquian-specific Hierarchies ............................ 57 2.2.2 Hierarchically-aligned VTA Paradigms .......................................64 2.2.2.1 Mixed Set: Speech Act Participants and Third Persons ........................................................ 65 2.2.2.2 Third Person Set: Proximate and Obviative .................. 76 2.2.2.3 Local Set: Speech Act Participant Interaction .............. 81 2.2.3 The Algonquian Semantic Function/Animacy Hierarchy Explored ................................................................ 87 2.2.3.1 Monotransitives .......................................................... 88 2.2.3.2 Ditransitives ................................................................ 95 2.2.4 The Direct-Inverse System and the Algonquian Circle of Reference ................................................................ 99 2.2.5 Inanimate Actor VTA ................................................................ 102 2.3 Plains Cree Verbs: Transitivity vs. Animacy ......................................... 107 2.3.1 VII, VAI and VTI ..................................................................... 108 2.3.1.1 Inanimate Intransitive Verbs (VII) ............................. 109 2.3.1.2 Animate Intransitive Verbs (VAI) ............................. 110 2.3.1.3 Transitive Inanimate Verbs (VTI) .............................. 114 2.3.1.4 Transitive Animate Verbs Revisited .......................... 116 2.3.2 The Cree Verbal System Revisited ............................................ 119 2.3.3 Transitivity-based Cree Verb Classifications .............................. 125 2.3.3.1 Wolfart and Ahenakew .............................................. 126 2.3.3.2 Okimāsis and Ratt ..................................................... 128 2.3.3.3 Transitivity Regularized ............................................ 132 2.3.4 Further Questions ..................................................................... 144 2.4 An Animacy-based Approach to Cree Verb Classification .................... 149 2.4.1 Morphology Regularized ........................................................... 150 2.4.1.1 Animacy Over Inanimacy .......................................... 150 2.4.1.2 Morphophonological Subclasses ................................ 155 2.4.2 Testing the Classification .......................................................... 158 2.4.2.1 VAI Unspecified Actor ............................................. 159 2.4.2.2 VTI Unspecified Actor .............................................. 161 2.4.2.3 VTA Unspecified Actor ............................................ 163 2.4.3 Cree Verbal Constructions and Animate Participants ................. 168 2.5 Conclusions ......................................................................................... 171 3 Syntactic Functions and Pragmatic Discourse Status 173 3.1 Inverse .............................................................................................. 173 3.1.1 A Test for Object ...................................................................... 177 3.2 Unspecified Actor ................................................................................ 185 3.2.1 A Test for Subject ..................................................................... 185 3.3 Conclusions ......................................................................................... 191 Contents iii II Plains Cree Word Order 195 4 Semantic Functions and Word Order 197 4.1 Word Order Variability ........................................................................ 197 4.2 Clause Structure Models ...................................................................... 209 4.3 Semantic Function Ordering ................................................................. 213 4.4 The Position of Postverbal Constituents ................................................ 225 4.4.1 Postverbal Arguments ............................................................... 226 4.4.2 Postverbal Modifiers ................................................................. 232 4.4.3 Interaction of Postverbal Arguments and Modifiers ................... 236 4.4.4 Postverbal Constituents Summarized ......................................... 240 5 Syntactically-conditioned Word Order 243 5.1 PM–1 ..................................................................................................... 244 5.1.1 Relative Root Antecedents in PM–1 ............................................. 246 5.1.1.1 Quoting Speech, Thought and Names ........................ 248 5.1.1.2 Other Instances of /it-/ ~ isi- ~ isi .............................. 260 5.1.1.3 /oht-/ ~ ohci- ~ ohci .................................................. 263 5.1.1.4 Other Relative Roots ................................................. 264 5.1.2 Quantifiers, Intensifiers and Degree Modifiers ........................... 269 5.1.2.1 mitoni, mistahi, iyikohk ............................................. 269 5.1.2.2 kahkiyaw and other Quantifiers ................................. 274 5.2 Clause Linkage .................................................................................... 277 5.2.1 Coordinators (and Subordinators) .............................................. 277 5.2.2 Temporals ................................................................................. 284 5.3 P2 Introduced ....................................................................................... 288 5.3.1 Coordinators and Emphatic Particles ......................................... 289 5.3.2 Demonstratives, Focus Particles and Copulas ............................ 293 5.4 Conclusions ......................................................................................... 299 6 Pragmatic Functions and Word Order 303 6.1 Clausal Constituents ............................................................................ 303 6.1.1 PI .............................................................................................