Curtin Business School The Commercialization of Traditional Subsistence Hunting Activities in Bario, the Kelabit Highlands, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo Akram Akbari This thesis is presented for the Degree of Master of Philosophy of Curtin University September 2016 DECLARATION OF ETHICS The research presented and reported in this thesis was guided by the Australian National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (2007) which was updated in May 2013; and the joint NHMRC/AVCC statements on “Value and Principles of Ethical Conduct”, “General Requirements for Consent”, “Qualifying or Waiving Conditions for Consent”, “Qualitative Methods”, “Databanks”, and “Process Report”. The researcher has also been fully informed about the indigenous rights of the Kelabit people in general by reading the “United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People”. The research has received the Ethics Approval from Curtin University under CSEA 221013 approval code. Furthermore, a Forest Department Sarawak Permit had also issued Permit to conduct the interviews for this research (Permit code# NCCD.907.4.4 [JLD.10]-223). ____________________________ Akram Akbari 16 September 2016 i DEDICATION به نام خداوند جان و خرد کزین برتر اندیشه برنگذرد It‟s a great feeling to beloved, but it‟s profound to be understood. I am authentically myself. And the only reason is I‟ve been blessed by having an admirable mother, father and brother. I would like to dedicate this thesis to my only beloved ones, Mom, Ashraft, Dad, Ali, and my brother, Alireza. ًفس باد صبا هطک فطاى خْاُد ضد عالن پیر دگربارٍ جْاى خْاُد ضد ارغْاى جام عقیقی بَ سوي خْاُد داد چطن ًرگس بَ ضقاق ًگراى خْاُد ضد ایي تطاّل کَ کطید از غن ُجراى بلبل تا سراپردٍ گل ًعرٍ زًاى خْاُد ضد گر ز هسجد بَ خرابات ضدم خردٍ هگیر هجلس ّعظ دراز است ّ زهاى خْاُد ضد ای دل ار عطرت اهرّز بَ فردا فکٌی هایَ ًقد بقا را کَ ضواى خْاُد ضد هاٍ ضعباى هٌَ از دست قدح کایي خْرضید ازًظر تا ضب عید رهضاى خْاُد ضد گل عسیس است غٌیوت ضوریدش صحبت کَ بَ باغ آهد از ایي راٍ ّ از آى خْاُد ضد هطربا هجلس اًس است غسل خْاى ّ سرّد چٌد گْیی کَ چٌیي رفت ّ چٌاى خْاُد ضد حافظ از بِر تْ آهد سْی اقلین ّجْد قدهی ًَ بَ ّداعص کَ رّاى خْاُد ضد حافظ )غسل 164( ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My thoughts and perspectives have been shaped and more focused by variety of people over many years. First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Ali Parsayan and Ms. Setareh Zahedi for being part of my life like a family, and sincerely lead me for more than 15 years. I would also like to express my deepest appreciation to my thesis committee members: Prof. Marcus Man Kon Lee, Chairperson, for the time he has allocated for me to read my whole work; Prof. Beena Giridharan, main supervisor, for her ongoing comments, advice and support; and last but not least, I would like to particularly thank Dr. Lisa M. King, the co- supervisor, for believing in me to be the right person to conduct the research and her continuous encouragement and advice during my Masters study. Dr. Lisa M. King, this thesis could not have been completed without your sincere thoughts and guidance. I would also like to thank Ted Brattstrom, Dr. King‟s husband, for his pertinent and timely advice. My life has been influenced by your thoughts a lot for the past three years. I would like to thank Curtin University, Sarawak campus, for offering me a Higher Degree by Research full scholarship. Moreover, I would also like to thank the Graduate School and School of Business for their Thesis Completion and Free-Tuition Waiver scholarships. I would also thank to many other people who paved this uneven path for me and offered me their sincere assistance. The friends in Bario, the Kelabit Highlands, Sarawak, Malaysia: Mr. Martin Gerau from Padang Pasir, as my assistant, transporter and translator; Mr. Lian Tarawe from Padang Pasir, as my assistant and translator; Mrs. Florance Apu from Ulung Palang Atas (Boad Main Atas), for the timely advice in the field; Mrs. Uding Maran from Ulung Palang Atas, Lucie Trang, Ulung Palang Atas, Connie Aping from Ulung Palang Atas, as my translators and back translators and their warm hospitality; Mrs. Dayang Nalin from Arur Dalan Kuba‟an, as my translator and her warm haspitality; Mr. Stephan Nalin, from Arur Dalan Kuba‟an, as my back translator and assistant in some Penan interviews; Mr. Robert Chee from Kampung Baru, for his guidance in the field; Ms. Angelika Boeck, Pa‟Derung, for her guidance in and out of Bario; David and Bulan from Arur Layon, for their warm hospitality and any more. I also would like to thank Uncle Brian Sawyer for his guidance and support regarding reforestation and species knowledge in Malaysian Borneo. I would also iii like to thank Mrs. Doris Lian for her support and guidance during my data collection and Kelabit terminology in my thesis. Moreover, I would like to thank my new but indelible friends Mrs. Goon Wei Mun and her husband Mr. Allan Yek for their support for the last five months and providing me peaceful environment to proceed with writing my thesis. Thank you all for sincerely leading and guiding me for the past 2 years. I would like to utter my sincere gratefulness to all librarians at National Library [Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia], Sarawak Museum Library [Kuching, Malaysia], Public Library [Kuching, Malaysia], and particularly Curtin Sarawak library for all their assistance, cooperation and guidance. Moreover, I would like to thank R&D department and Graduate School, particularly Ms. Florence Singa, for her concerns and guidance. Dear Florence, you have helped me a lot along this journey. Last but not least, final thank to my Mom, Dad and brother for believing in me. You have endured with being apart from me and letting me take the challenge of experiencing a new environment and life. I appreciate your support for letting me follow my dreams. iv STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP To the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis contains no material previously published by any other person except where due acknowledgment has been made. This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university. ____________________________ Akram Akbari 16 September 2016 v ABSTRACT Hunting wildlife for human consumption is now widely acknowledged as unsustainable throughout the world‟s tropical forests. Yet, many people in Asia live at the margins of the cash economy and depend on the harvest of wildlife for both subsistence and income purposes. This situation especially holds true Malaysian Borneo. Wildlife in the Kelabit Highlands of Sarawak, in Malaysian Borneo, is increasingly hunted for commercial purposes to satisfy demand for bush meat from both local residents and migrants to distant urban centers. There is no clear data on the extent to which wildlife consumption is affected by price compared to domestic alternatives; and, to what extent price drives hunting activity. This study aims identify the factors driving the commercialization of hunting in the Kelabit Highlands and undersand the impact of hunting on the biodiversity in the studied region.. The research methodology applied a qualitative, ethnographic approach which included semi- structured interviews with local hunters, on and off-site observations and photo- documentation. Fifty-six semi-structured interviews were conducted across 17 Kelabit villages and a Penan village over a two month period between August 2014 and December 2015. Data collect periods included the dry season (August and September 2014), the wet or animal season (February 2015) and Occasional Event hunting times (the Slow Food Festival in late July and the Christmas Feast in late December 2015). Observations were made during August and September 2014, February 2015, sporatically throughout August 2015, and during late December 2015. The data elicited includes a compilation of species hunted in the dry season by their English, Kelabit and Penan names. The prices paid for bush meat by species and target market are also catalogued. Contemporary and traditional Kelabit hunting methods, along with bushmeat cooking and preservation methods are compiled and described. Findings indicate that there are several categories of hunters in the Kelabit Highlands. Moreover, price has impacts on the species hunted. There are several categories of bushmeat consumers in and outside of the Kelabit Highlands who influence the species to be hunted depending on the seasons. In addition, the preferred hunting grounds of locals were studied; finally, the number of Kelabit hunters who hold gun and hunting licenses and how many permits have been issued to the hunters were studied. vi Table of Contents DECLARATION OF ETHICS i DEDICATION ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP v ABSTRACT vi Table of Contents vii Key definitions xi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Bushmeat crisis 1 1.3 Bushmeat consumption and crisis in Bario 2 1.4 Commercial hunting 4 1.5 Sustainability of hunting 6 1.6 Conclusion 7 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 8 2.1 Introduction 8 2.2 The Kelabit Highlands, natural and demographic background 9 2.2.1 The Kelabit Highlands 9 2.2.2 The Kelabit 9 2.2.3 The Penan 18 2.2.4 The biodiversity 18 2.2.5 Contemporary hunting activities among the communities 18 2.3 Commercial hunted species and their commercial prices determination 19 2.3.1 Overview of wildlife hunting 20 2.4 Economic and commercial pressures on hunting activities: Overall impact 22 2.4.1 Commercial hunting 22 2.4.2 Bushmeat crisis 25 2.4.3 Factors affect hunting 26 2.4.3.1 Overexploitation 26 2.4.3.2