ADAPTIVE ARBOREAL PRACTICES: HAITIAN FARMER RESPONSES TO ON-GOING DEFORESTATION By ANDREW TARTER A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2015 © 2015 Andrew Tarter To Asha ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to open by acknowledging the inhabitants of the area examined in this dissertation, for their enduring kindness and friendship over the last six years; they have been generous with their time, their patience, and with sharing their knowledge and insights. I could not begin to name them all, but I would like to acknowledge Loubert, Joel, Kilin, Merlin, Ti Lilin, and Jid. I would also like to thank three anthropology and sociology student research collaborators from the Faculté d'Ethnologie (Department of Ethnology; FE) at the L'Université d'État d'Haïti (State University of Haiti; UEH): (1) Jean-Robert; (2) Lamard; and (3) Reginald. Not only did these accommodating gentlemen move to the research area for nine months. They were also indispensable collaborators in the creation of the survey, its testing and refinement, and eventual widespread execution. Prior to the survey, these student research collaborators contributed to the vetting of theoretical constructs related to the research. They endured many hours walking in sun, wind, and sometimes rain to conduct many of the interviews. I am forever grateful for their assistance and friendship. None of this research would have been possible if it were not for the continued financial support of several public and private institutes. My master’s research was fully funded by two different Foreign Language and Area Studies (FLAS) Fellowships from the United States Department of Education. The National Science Foundation (NSF) graciously funded the preparatory years of my doctoral coursework through their Graduate Research Fellow Program (GRFP). The blueprint of the dissertation research design was formulated during the NSF- sponsored Summer Institute for Research Design (SIRD), at Duke University; I am grateful to Drs. Susan Weller, Jeff Johnson, Russ Bernard, Tracy VanHolt, and Amber Wutich for their valuable feedback on different drafts of the research design. The Wenner Gren Foundation for 4 Anthropological Research (WGF) collaborated with the National Science Foundation (NSF) to jointly fund1 the research presented in this dissertation. Finally, I wish to acknowledge the Fulbright Program for support during the year prior to this dissertation research. As an inaugural Fulbright Public Policy Fellow placed in the cabinet of Haiti’s Prime Minister, I was a first-hand witness to the discrepancies between the Haitian nation and the state, the rural and the urban lifeways, pèp la (the proletariat; Haiti’s majority) and the boujwa (bourgeois; socioeconomic elite). My year spent in Haiti’s capital also allowed me to lay the necessary groundwork needed to launch into a year of fieldwork andeyò (the rural countryside). I wish to thank anthropologist Mark Schuller. Mark facilitated my initial introduction to members of the Faculté d'Ethnologie at the State University of Haiti. This initial introduction started the ball rolling on the process of recruiting, interviewing, selecting, and hiring the three anthropology and sociology student research collaborators. I am indebted to Drs. Jhon Picard Byron (Chef Département Anthropologie-Sociologie), Ilionor Louis, (Chef Département des Sciences de Développement), and Jean-Yves Blot (Vice- Recteur à la Recherche) from the Faculté d'Ethnologie. Without the help of these wonderful faculty members, I would never have been able to complete the research. I look forward to co- presenting at the Faculté d'Ethnologie, with the student collaborators, the research presented herein. I also look forward to continued, long-term collaboration with members of the Faculté d'Ethnologie, and other Haitian scholars. I am eternally grateful to Hannah, Kenson, and Baby Cat, who graciously opened their home in Port-au-Prince to me, often at short notice, whenever I needed, and without question. 1 National Science Foundation Doctoral Dissertation Improvement Grant (DDIG) No. 1222456; and The Wenner Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research Dissertation Grant No. 8505. 5 Occasional refuge from my field site was a necessary condition of maintaining equanimity during this period. I am very grateful and indebted to Karen Jones, Pamela Freeman, and Juanita Bagnall, from the office of the Department of Anthropology, at University of Florida—they have all been very patient with multiple steps related to my pursuit of the PhD. I wish to acknowledge my entire family, biological and inherited, for their continued loving support during this time. I am particular grateful to Mike, Kami, and Asha, who endured my odd schedule and antisocial manner during the writing of this dissertation. I have the utmost respect and gratitude for the anthropologists involved in studying plants, trees, economic markets, and a myriad of other subjects in Haiti (Jacques Roumain, Sidney Mintz, Wade Davis, Gerald Murray, Karen Kramer, Ira Lowenthal, Fredrick Conway, Anthony Balzano, and Glenn Smucker. I am sure there are others I have missed). I have had helpful and meaningful exchanges with all of you, for which I am fortunate and indebted. I also wish to thanks to anthropologist Timothy Schwartz2, whose humorous anecdotes about his dissertation fieldwork in rural Haiti added levity to a challenging situation. Although Tim did not assist with my dissertation, he showed an uncommon level of kindness to me and provided valuable advice. Particularly memorable was Tim’s late night introduction to anthropologist and long-time Haiti resident, Ira Lowenthal. Equally memorable was a terrifying ride on the back of Tim’s motorcycle, at break-neck speed, through Port-au-Prince at night. I must express immense gratitude to the individual members of my dissertation committee. Dr. Christopher McCarty has been incredibly generous with his time. I have profited immensely from his course on Social Network Analysis, as well as his general outlook on the 2 Tim and I share some academic lineage; we both profited immensely from committees that included Gerald F. Murray and H. Russ Bernard. Tim was luckier than I; Marvin Harris also sat on his committee. 6 role and value of social science. Chris also helped with early drafts of my dissertation funding proposals. Later he supported my academic employment search by contributing nearly 100 letters of recommendation. I have always found Chris to be a clear, pragmatic thinker, and a supplier of excellent advice, from which I have benefited greatly. Dr. Michael Bannister has contributed an essential role on the dissertation committee. As only non-anthropologist (Mike is an agroforester), his storehouse of knowledge about Haiti, farmers, and trees made him an indispensable asset to me. Mike too, has contributed many letters of support on my behalf. To top it off, Mike introduced me to the broader area where the fieldwork for both my master’s and doctoral research was conducted. Despite his reserved and polite manner, Mike has never shied away from directly challenging unsubstantiated or insufficiently supported claims in my writing, and for that I am especially grateful. I am grateful for Dr. H. Russell Bernard. Despite being retired, Russ graciously agreed to sit on my dissertation committee after our meeting and conversations at the Summer Institute of Research Design (SIRD). Russ is a storehouse of knowledge about anthropology, science, research design, and methods. When I discussed with Russ the idea of organizing a GIS workshop at the annual American Anthropological Association meetings, he not only encouraged me, he also provided excellent advice on structuring a successful workshop. Russ saw me through the end of the dissertation, despite the fact that he was retired when I first met him, and recently took on a new job Arizona State University as the director of the Institute for Social Science Research. I consider myself lucky to have learned from him and from his many helpful books and articles. Haitian Creole linguist, Vodou researcher, and religious scholar Dr. Benjamin Hebblethwaite has continued to support my academic pursuits, in numerous ways, since our first 7 meeting in 2007. Ben also tirelessly wrote hundreds of letters of recommendation on my behalf. He encouraged me to teach Kreyòl (Haitian Creole) at UF, to publish, to pursue funding, and to apply to jobs. But more meaningful than his academic support has been Ben’s friendship; he befriended a new graduate student and insisted that we share drinks and conversation about Haiti and other topics, nearly every Friday night, for the lion’s share of my time in Gainesville. Ben has been a constant source of encouragement and a true friend. Finally, I’d like to end with a few words about Dr. Gerald (Jerry) F. Murray, my dissertation chair since my inception into the Department of Anthropology at the University of Florida, in 2008. The chair-student dynamic is an unusual human relationship, often lengthy, and most-frequently professional in nature. When I first wrote Jerry from India in 2007, he responded to my protracted email with, “I am not taking on new students but would possibly reconsider for somebody seriously interested in Haiti, including fluency in Creole. You seem to fit that profile.” Those words were all I needed to hear—Jerry’s writing had otherwise convinced me that I wanted to work with him. I will never forget Jerry’s candid honesty when we met briefly during my first visit to the UF campus, during autumn 2007. Jerry played devil’s advocate, challenging me to really consider whether I wanted to give 7-10 years of my life to the pursuit of a PhD. But my mind was made up: University of Florida was the only school I considered; anthropology was the only department I applied to; and the fellowship to study Kreyòl was the only funding source I pursued.