HUNGRY GHOSTS: PONCA GIRLS IN TWO WORLDS By ANN MARIE WASILEWSKI Bachelor of Arts Augusta College Augusta, Georgia 1969 Master of Education University of Georgia Athens, Georgia 1976 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION July, 2004 COPYRIGHT By Ann Marie Wasilewski July, 2004 ii HUNGRY GHOSTS: PONCA GIRLS IN TWO WORLDS Thesis Approved: Pamela U. Brown Thesis Advisor Pamela Fry Gary J. Conti Katye M. Perry Dr. Al Carlozzi Dean of the Graduate College ii Dedicated to my mother and father. Catherine Howard Wasilewski Walter John Wasilewski iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, I want to express my deep gratitude to my dissertation advisor, Dr. Pam Brown, for her extreme patience, constructive guidance, and gentle encouragement. Your kind words were a balm to my soul as I struggled through this process. Second, I want to thank my committee members, Dr. Gary Conti, Dr. Pamela Fry, and Dr. Katye Perry. I am so appreciative of the time you spent reading my dissertation and for the suggestions you made to improve it. Third, I want to acknowledge two former members of my committee, Dr. Natalie Adams and Dr. Pamela Bettis, who moved on to different universities. Without your interest, guidance, and assistance I would not have made it this far. Fourth, I thank the Ponca girls and the members of the Ponca community who shared their thoughts and culture with me. It was a tremendous education. I also want to thank my Bahá’i friends, Nancy and Jim Schear, for their encouragement and the hours they spent with me at their dining room table going over my drafts. My gratitude also goes to Sonia Brumfield who did such a wonderful job of making my dissertation look so good. Last, but not least, I want to express my gratitude to my family. To my mother and father who made sure I got an education and appreciated all people, to my husband, Sherman Bold Warrior who suffered through this with me, and to my sons, Ben and Mark iv Oates, who have become such wonderful young men, know that I love you and am thankful for you. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter ......................................................................................................................Page I. Introduction..................................................................................................................1 Introduction: It is Important that you Recognize Us ...............................................1 The Community .................................................................................................1 Education After the Arrival of Europeans .........................................................4 Statement of the Problem.........................................................................................8 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................9 Significance of the Study.......................................................................................10 Research Questions................................................................................................11 Research Design.....................................................................................................12 Qualitative Case Study.....................................................................................12 Concerns with Use of Methodology ................................................................13 Research Bias.........................................................................................................14 Limitations of the Study.........................................................................................18 Organization of the Study ......................................................................................18 Definition of Terms................................................................................................20 II. Review of the Literature ............................................................................................21 History of the Ponca People...................................................................................21 Introduction......................................................................................................21 Coming to North America ...............................................................................25 First European Contact ....................................................................................31 Forced Removal...............................................................................................35 Twentieth Century ...........................................................................................38 Ponca Culture...................................................................................................39 Indian Education....................................................................................................43 Overview..........................................................................................................43 Chilocco...........................................................................................................51 Twentieth Century ...........................................................................................58 Dropout Theories...................................................................................................62 Ogbu and Voluntary/Involuntary Minorities ...................................................62 Cultural Deprivation and Cultural Difference/Discontinuity ..........................65 Critical Theory.................................................................................................67 Conclusion.............................................................................................................68 vi Chapter Page III. METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................69 Introduction............................................................................................................69 Rationale for Qualitative Method ....................................................................70 Feminist Frame ................................................................................................71 Case Study.......................................................................................................76 Ethical Issues.........................................................................................................78 Indigenous Issues.............................................................................................78 Children’s Issues..............................................................................................80 Validity and Reliability..........................................................................................82 Internal and External Validity..........................................................................82 Reliability.........................................................................................................83 Evolution of the Study ...........................................................................................84 Gaining Access................................................................................................85 Sites..................................................................................................................86 Participants.......................................................................................................86 Interviews.........................................................................................................87 Analysis............................................................................................................87 Conclusion.............................................................................................................89 IV. FINDINGS.................................................................................................................90 Introduction............................................................................................................90 Results....................................................................................................................93 Why Stay in School .........................................................................................93 Why Girls Drop Out.........................................................................................95 Income/Jobs .....................................................................................................95 Pregnancy.........................................................................................................96 Community Environment ................................................................................97 Peer Influence..................................................................................................99 Nurturing at School........................................................................................100 Prejudice........................................................................................................109 Cultural Differences.......................................................................................114 School Changes..............................................................................................116 Summary..............................................................................................................119