CHILDHOOD: STUDIES IN THE HISTORY OF CHILDREN IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY IRELAND incorporating the digital humanities project ‘IRISH CHILDREN IN 18TH CENTURY SCHOOLS AND INSTITUTIONS’ Gabrielle M. Ashford (B.A. Hons) Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History St Patrick’s College Drumcondra A college of Dublin City University Supervisor of Research: Prof. James Kelly January 2012 Volume one of two Abstract The history of children and childhood in eighteenth-century Ireland has long been overlooked. Yet over the course of the century children were brought more firmly into the centre of eighteenth-century Irish society. The policies, practices and ideologies that emerged during the century provided the essential framework for a more comprehensive inclusion of children in all societal and political considerations by the nineteenth. The object of this thesis is to construct a picture of childhood among elite, gentry, peasant, pauper and institutional children over the course of the long eighteenth-century. In addition, it incorporates as a separate appendix the digital humanities project ‘Irish children in 18th century schools and institutions’. Even though childhood was a dynamic process there was a rigidity reinforced by inter- textualities and hierarchies, so that in many instances childhood remained an abstract yet distinctive process. Parental and societal attitudes shaped the expectations of children and childhood and, though all children experienced childhood, there were significantly marked differences between them based on class. This is more vividly illustrated in some aspects than others. For instance, all social classes promoted children’s health, well-being and their education, but for some it remained aspirational. Yet the behaviour and attitudes shown towards children in institutional care were in marked contrast to those operating in the domestic environment. Children and childhood are examined in separate but related dimensions: the parental and societal view of childhood within the domestic and institutional environment; the attitudes and practices surrounding children’s health and well-being, and crucially, children’s education and ‘the child’ as society’s hope for the future. The thesis does not claim to provide a complete history of children and childhood in eighteenth-century Ireland, rather it identifies the impact that public and private policies, and emerging and developing ideologies concerning children had on the experience of children, childhood, parenthood and society across the long eighteenth-century. I hereby certify that this material, which I now submit for assessment on the programme of study leading to the award of Doctor of Philosophy is entirely my own work and has not been taken from the work of others save and to the extent that such work has been cited and acknowledged within the text of my work. (Candidate) ID no.: 58262709 Date: $ 5 & D lt Table of Contents Page ABSTRACT ii LIST OF TABLES v LIST OF FIGURES vi LIST OF MAPS viii ABBREVIATIONS ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS x INTRODUCTION 1 PART 1: RAISING CHILDREN IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY IRELAND 20 Section I Infancy - caring for children 21 Section II Parental attitudes to older children and child rearing 49 Section III Children at rest 71 PART 2: CHILDREN AND HEALTH IN THE DOMESTIC ENVIRONMENT 89 Section I Promoting children’s health 91 Section II The medical treatment of children 104 Section III ‘Diseases most incident to children’ 123 PART 3: CHILDREN IN INSTITUTIONAL CARE 154 Section I Development of institutional childcare - the hi storical context 15 7 Section II The nature and character of institutional childcare, 1740-1820 169 Section III Caring for vulnerable children 201 PART 4: THE EDUCATION OF CHILDREN 238 Section I Directing children’s education — the theoretical and societal debates 240 Section II The development and provision of children’s educational needs 260 Section III The mechanics of education 284 Section IV The foundations of structured programmes of education 304 CONCLUSION 335 APPENDICES: 345 1 Foundling children’s welfare: parliamentary acts proposed and enacted 1697-1800 346 2 Definition of school types 349 3 Charity school, ‘A Form of a Fault Bill’, 1721 350 BIBLIOGRAPHY 351 iv List of tables Table Page no 0.1 Rousseau’s age characterisation, 1762 7 0.2 Buchan’s medicine/age categorisation, 1805 8 1.1 Dexter family of Annfield, county Kildare, cost of wet-nurses, 1708-16 34 1.2 Miss [Molly] Flowers (c. 1719-31) funeral expenses, 1731 43 1.3 Miss [Jane] O’Hara’s (1740-43) funeral expenses, 1743 44 1.4 Ballycastle, Maynooth and Arklow Charter schools, funeral costs, 45 1755-90 1.5 Definition of legal guardians, 1765 57 2.1 Lobb’s general guide to children’s liquid medicine dosage, 1764 112 2.2 Tissot’s general medicine measurements, 1766 113 2.3 Buchan’s medicine/age categorisation, 1805 113 2.4 Children’s ailments extracted from eighteenth-century Irish domestic 125 receipt books 2.5 List of expenses incurred by the illness and death of Richard Adlercron, 140 1788 3.1 Children’s Parish Poor Relief - St Catherine and St James, united 159 parishes of Finglas, St Margaret’s, Artane and the Ward, Dublin, 1657-1758 3.2 Entrants to the Dublin House of Industry, 1780-1784 173 3.3 General age of admission to schools and institutions, 1670-1795 175 3.4 Charity sermons, finance raised, 1717-1802 182 3.5 Expenses incurred transporting a foundling from Aghaderg parish to 187 Dublin, December 1768 3.6 The King’s Hospital, rules to be observed by the boys in the new 194 building, c. 1745-6 3.7 Charter school clothing, 1770s 197 3.8 St Mary’s Charity school, Dublin, clothing, 1790s 200 3.9 Children’s dietary, the King’s Hospital school, 1737 205 3.10 Children’s dietary in the Hibernian school, Phoenix Park, Dublin, winter 205 and summer, 1799 3.11 House of Industry, Dublin, dietaries, 1783 206 3.12 House of Industry, Dublin, dietaries, 1786 207 3.13 Reconstruction of vitamin analysis of children’s diets aged 6 to 12 years 209 in the Dublin Workhouse and Foundling Hospital, 1772 v 3.14 Reconstruction of vitamin analysis of proposed changes to children’s 210 diets aged 6 tol2 years in the Dublin Workhouse and Foundling Hospital, 1772 3.15 Dietary of Dublin Workhouse children aged 6 to 12 years, 1772 211 3.16 Proposed dietary of Dublin Workhouse children aged 6 to 12 years, 1772 211 3.17 Dietary of Dublin Workhouse children over 12 years of age, 1772 212 3.18 Proposed dietary of Dublin Workhouse children over 12 years of age, 212 1772 3.19 Dietary for the asylums, House of Industry, Dublin, 1797 213 3.20 The King’s Hospital, instructions to nurses c. 1749 215 3.21 Dublin Workhouse and Foundling Hospital, mortality, 1785-97 220 3.22 An abstract of the number of children inoculated in the Dublin Foundling 226 Hospital for eight years ending 25th December 1796 3.23 Degrees and effects of venereal disease on new bom children, 228 Von Rosenstein, 1776 3.24 Dublin Workhouse and Foundling Hospital admissions and deaths from 231 venereal disease, 1785-1797 3.25 An account of the number of children admitted to the Dublin Foundling 233 Hospital suffering from venereal disease and their deaths for six months ending 8 January 1798 4.1 James Nelson’s societal gradations and education, 1756 251 4.2 Abstract of diocesan returns, Popish schools, 1731 274 4.3 Subject charge per quarter, Carysfort Free school, county Wicklow, 1788 297 4.4 Drogheda Endowed school, pupil costs and fees, 1788 298 4.5 Additional school purchases for Lucius O’Brien, 1747 300 4.6 Townley Hall school, daily routine, 1770 310 4.7 Abbey Presbyterian school, Dublin, daily routine, May 1792 311 4.8 Pupil numbers in selected schools, 1687-1811 314 4.9 Primrose Grange Charter school, pupil assessment, 1802 319 4.10 Cork Poor schools, pupil classification, 1806 320 List of figures Fig. P ag e 1.1 Ginger bread and apples, 1760 88 2.1 John Locke’s rules for good health in children, 1693 91 2.2 Annual Dublin bills of mortality, 1734-5, 1737-8 124 2.3 Appointments by the Sutton family to ‘regulate and extend their art over 144 the kingdom of Ireland’, 1768 2.4 Mortar and pestle 153 3.1 Foundling maintenance receipt, 1798 162 3.2 Charter schools established, 1733-1812 165 3.3 Admissions to the Dublin Workhouse and Foundling Hospital, 1739-96 169 3.4 Total number of children in the care of the Dublin Workhouse and 169 Foundling Hospital, 1787-91 3.5 Foundling children in care in European context, 1740s 170 3.6 Establishment of Charter schools and pupil number, 1733-1812 171 3.7 Charter schools roll, 1781-87 171 3.8 Children admitted to Dublin Foundling Hospital, 1739-43 172 3.9 Dublin Foundling Hospital receipt, 1788 188 3.10 Dublin Workhouse and Foundling Hospital, transportation distances and 188 deaths, July 1797-January 1798 3.11 Age of children in the Dublin Workhouse and Foundling Hospital, 189 173 7-43 3.12 Age of children in the Dublin Workhouse and Foundling Hospital, 189 1772-73 3.13 Dublin Workhouse and Foundling Hospital, admissions and infant 191 mortality, 1797-1805 3.14 Masonic Orphan boys school uniforms, 1792, 1892 199 3.15 Masonic Orphan girls school uniforms, 1792, 1892 199 3.16 Dublin Foundling Hospital, admissions and mortality, 1785-97 221 3.17 Dr Blackhall’s receipt for scald head, 1772 223 3.18 Dublin Foundling Hospital, admissions and death from venereal disease, 231 1785-97 3.19 Dublin Workhouse and Foundling Hospital, 1818 237 4.1 Religion of children attending school, 1824 273 4.2 Children in Irish