Exploring social entrepreneurship as a youth peacebuilding tool to mitigate structural violence: Action research using mixed methods in Zimbabwe A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy: Public Administration-Peace Studies in the Faculty of Public Management at Durban University of Technology Hillary Jephat Musarurwa AUGUST 2019 Supervisor: Dr. Sylvia B. Kaye Date: 28 August 2019 Co-supervisor: Date: 28 August 2019 Prof. Geoffrey Harris ii Abstract Youth around the world bear the brunt of many conflicts, as these impact their progression in life. Zimbabwean youth are not an exception in this regard, and like many other citizens across the country, they have experienced different forms of violence since independence in 1980. Structural violence (SV) is related to the uneven distribution of resources which then leads to the social exclusion and marginalisation of people. Structural violence equates to social inequality and leads to impaired human growth and development. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential of social entrepreneurship as a tool for promoting sustainable peace in Zimbabwe. Given the fact that youth are energetic and willing to act, they have the potential to be notable change-makers and to exhibit the characteristics of social entrepreneurs. Providing youth with civic or peace education alone cannot be effective in addressing social inequality and structural violence. Therefore, social entrepreneurship support becomes the final ingredient that completes the empowerment of youth, giving them the capacity to be independent decision-makers who will not be easily swayed into violence. The study was based on an action research strategy within a mixed methods research framework. A sequencing approach was applied in collecting data for this study. The researcher used primary data sources that included a survey as well as direct interactions with youth and some policy-makers through Focus Groups and In-depth Interviews. This thesis contributed to theory in three ways, namely: (i) validating other research and (ii) contributing to knowledge by depicting the effectiveness of grassroots-initiated solutions and (iii) showing the effectiveness of social entrepreneurship in addressing structural violence. This thesis also discloses how bringing about change is overwhelming and that it varies across the micro or macro levels. There are many challenges in transforming SV. In the absence of local ownership and interest, an effort by an outsider to bring about change can only have short-term results with the momentum ending once the outsider leaves. iii Declaration This is to certify that the work is entirely my own and not of any other person, unless explicitly acknowledged (including citation of published and unpublished sources). The work has not previously been submitted in any form to the Durban University of Technology or to any other institution for assessment or for any other purpose. Signed: _________________________________________________ Date: ___________________________________________________ iv Dedication I dedicate this work to the memory of my late younger brother, Duncan McMullan Sande, a victim of structural violence, who took away his life at a budding age of 23. Rest in peace Dumac, I surely had to finish this work in your honour and memory. v Acknowledgements I want to thank God Almighty for the gift of life and the ability to push myself to the limit and complete this thesis. I acknowledge the sterling guidance of Dr Sylvia B. Kaye, who supervised me throughout this project. I also appreciate Prof Geoff Harris, who assisted in grounding me into peacebuilding and non-violence action. The push I got from the two ladies that are key in my life cannot go unmentioned: my daughter, Takakundiswa Zoe Musarurwa, for pressing me on towards the finishing line, and my soul mate, Quondile Zunidza, for not losing your head even though you probably felt that I had lost mine. To the men of the house, Munenyasha Ezekiel Musarurwa and Boithumelo Atipaishe, thank you for tolerating an absent father and for not being fussy when I couldn’t be around for the birthdays. A big shout out and thank you to all those who believed I could do this and watched me do it. vi Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................ iii Declaration ...................................................................................................... iv Dedication ........................................................................................................ v Acknowledgements ......................................................................................... vi Table of Contents ........................................................................................... vii List of Tables ................................................................................................. xvi List of Figures .............................................................................................. xviii List of Appendices ........................................................................................ xxii Glossary of Terms ....................................................................................... xxiii CHAPTER 1: THE RESEARCH PROBLEM, OBJECTIVES AND STUDY OVERVIEW1 ....................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 1 1.1.1 Understanding Zimbabwe’s Conflict ................................................ 1 1.1.2 Defining Structural and Cultural Violence, Negative Peace ............ 3 1.1.3 How Structural Violence presents itself in Zimbabwe ...................... 7 1.1.4 Youth as victims or willing perpetrators of violence ....................... 10 1.1.5 The Rise of Youth Activism in Zimbabwe ...................................... 11 1.2 Motivation for Research ....................................................................... 11 1.2.1 Lived Experience ........................................................................... 12 1.2.2 Knowledge Gap ............................................................................. 13 1.2.3 Solution Gap .................................................................................. 14 1.3 Aim and Objectives .............................................................................. 15 1.3.1 Research Objectives ..................................................................... 15 1.3.2 Research Questions ...................................................................... 15 1.4 Overview of the Thesis ......................................................................... 16 vii 1.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 17 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS2 ....... 18 2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 18 2.2 Research Aim and Objectives .............................................................. 19 2.3 Key Concepts of Peace, Violence and Social Inequality ...................... 20 2.3.1 Defining Peace, Violence and Social Inequality ............................ 20 2.3.2 Structural Violence ........................................................................ 21 2.3.3 Cultural Violence ........................................................................... 22 2.3.4 Debate on Galtung’s Theory of Violence ....................................... 22 2.3.5 How Structural Violence presents itself ......................................... 25 2.3.6 The Effects of not addressing Structural Violence ......................... 26 2.3.7 Conflict Transformation ................................................................. 27 a. Theoretical Discourse ....................................................................... 27 b. The Goals of Conflict Transformation ............................................... 29 c. Conflict Transformation and Conflict Mapping .................................. 30 d. How Conflict Transformation addresses Structural Violence ............ 31 2.3.8 Non-Violent Action as a Response to Structural Violence ............. 32 2.4 Youth Participation ............................................................................... 35 2.4.1 Youth Participation defined ............................................................ 35 2.4.2 How young people participate ....................................................... 36 2.4.3 Barriers to Youth Participation ....................................................... 36 2.4.4 Ways to improve Youth Participation ............................................. 37 2.5 Peacebuilding Mechanisms ................................................................. 39 2.6 Social Entrepreneurship (SE) as a Peacebuilding Mechanism ............ 41 2.6.1 Defining Social Entrepreneurship .................................................. 41 2.6.2 Types of Social Entrepreneurs ...................................................... 44 2.6.3 Key Aspects of Social Entrepreneurship ....................................... 46 viii 2.6.4 How Social Entrepreneurship fits into Conflict Transformation ..... 47 2.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 48 CHAPTER