Forgotten Voices: Recovering the Voices of Nineteenth-Century Canadian Women Interpreters of the Old Testament by Kathleen Christie Buligan A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Wycliffe College and the Graduate Centre for Theological Studies of the Toronto School of Theology. In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Theology awarded by Wycliffe College and the University of Toronto © Copyright by Kathleen Christie Buligan 2019 Forgotten Voices: Recovering the Voices of Nineteenth-Century Canadian Women Interpreters of the Old Testament Kathleen Christie Buligan Doctor of Theology Wycliffe College and the University of Toronto 2019 Abstract This dissertation adds to the work of recovering the voices of pre-twentieth-century women interpreters of Scripture. It lists forty-four nineteenth-century Canadian women interpreters of the Old Testament, and then introduces and analyzes selected works by nine of these women. Chapter one describes the ongoing work of recovering forgotten women interpreters of Scripture, and states my purpose of adding the missing voices of nineteenth-century Canadian women. It also includes a brief analysis of factors that impacted where, how, and for whom Canadian women wrote and published their interpretations: the influence of predecessors and contemporaries from the British Isles and America; nineteenth-century Canadian demographics; educational barriers and opportunities; publishing challenges; and the cult of domesticity. The heart of the thesis introduces nine nineteenth-century Canadian women interpreters of the Old Testament: dramatist Eliza Lanesford Cushing; poets Isabella Whiteford Rogerson, Harriet Annie Wilkins, and Helen Mar Johnson; historical interpreters Mary L.T. Witter and A Lady of New Brunswick; Sunday school teachers Mrs. Thompson and Mrs. Leonard; and temperance advocate Letitia Youmans. ii It shows that these educated women of deep biblical knowledge used a variety of genres to teach their varied audiences about the Bible and its relevance in their lives. They highlighted themes of God’s transcendence, immanence, and provision, and the necessity of living a godly life. They incorporated a variety of extra-biblical resources such as Bible commentaries, atlases, and dictionaries, and archeological research to enhance their interpretations. This examination of the lives and writings of select nineteenth-century Canadian women interpreters of the Old Testament represents a valuable chapter in the ongoing recovery of women’s interpretive voices and suggests the need for further research into this understudied subject. iii Table of Contents List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... v List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vii List of Appendices ...................................................................................................................... viii Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: Setting the Stage for an Analysis of Select Writings by Nineteenth-Century Canadian Women Interpreters of the Bible ...................................................... 1:1 The State of the Question .................................................................................................. 5 1:2 Women Interpreters from the British Isles and America ................................................ 13 1:3 Nineteenth-Century Canadian Demographics ................................................................. 21 1:4 Educational Barriers and Opportunities ......................................................................... 25 1:5 Publishing Challenges .................................................................................................... 33 1:6 The Cult of Domesticity .................................................................................................. 43 Chapter 2: Nineteenth-Century Sacred Drama ................................................................................. 2:1 Eliza Lanesford Cushing (E.L.C.) .................................................................................. 55 Chapter 3: Nineteenth-Century Sacred Poetry .............................................................................. 80 3:1 Isabella Whiteford Rogerson .......................................................................................... 80 3:2 Harriet Annie Wilkins .................................................................................................... 95 3:3 Helen Mar Johnson ....................................................................................................... 111 Chapter 4: Nineteenth-Century Sacred Prose: Archaeology, Geography, and History .............. 129 4:1 Mary L. T. Witter ......................................................................................................... 126 4:2 A Lady of New Brunswick (A.L.O.N.B.) ..................................................................... 142 Chapter 5: Nineteenth-Century Sunday School Lessons ........................................................... 154 5:1 Mrs. James C. Thompson ............................................................................................... 154 5:2 Mrs. Leonard .................................................................................................................. 165 Chapter 6: The Bible and the Temperance Movement ..................................................................... 6:1 Mrs. Letitia Youmans ..................................................................................................... 176 Chapter 7: Summary and Implications ....................................................................................... 190 Tables ......................................................................................................................................... 195 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 199 Appendix A Canadian Women Interpreters of the Old Testament ............................................ 221 iv Abbreviations Old Testament Full Name Traditional Abbreviation 1 Chronicles 1 Chron. 2 Chronicles 2 Chron. Daniel Dan. Deuteronomy Deut. Ecclesiastes Eccles. Esther Esther Exodus Exod. Ezekiel Ezek. Genesis Gen. Habakkuk Hab. Haggai Hag. Hosea Hosea Isaiah Isa. Jeremiah Jer. Job Job Jonah Jon. Joshua Josh. Judges Judg. 1 Kings 1 Kings 2 Kings 2 Kings Leviticus Lev. Malachi Mal. Nehemiah Neh. Numbers Num. Obadiah Obad. Proverbs Prov. Psalms Ps. or Pss. Ruth Ruth 1 Samuel 1 Sam. 2 Samuel 2 Sam. Zechariah Zech. v Apocrypha Full Name Traditional Abbreviation Judith Judith New Testament Full Name Traditional Abbreviation John John Mark Mark Matthew Matt. A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, 9th ed., 2018, sections 24.6. 1- 4 vi List of Tables Table A: Population Statistics for Nineteenth-Century Canada …………………………………..195 Table B: Population Density in Nineteenth-Century Canada …………………………………….196 Table C:The Spread of Newspapers from East to West …………………………………………..197 Table D:The Growth of Publication Infrastructure ……………………………………………….198 vii List of Appendices Appendix A: Nineteenth-Century Canadian Women Old Testament Interpreters ………………..205 viii Introduction In the introduction to the Handbook of Women Biblical Interpreters (2012), Marion Taylor asks the question “Are There Women Interpreters?”1 She explains how standard histories of the interpretation of the Bible provide little help in trying to find women interpreters of Scripture because they focus “on the history of biblical scholarship, highlighting the lives and work of the most significant and authoritative voices of the academy, church, and synagogue.”2 However, a number of scholars involved in the arduous task of recovering the forgotten interpretive work of women have unearthed the writings of hundreds of pre-twentieth-century women. Although there is now a clear ‘yes’ in answer to the question of whether there are women interpreters of the Bible, it is also clear that the recovery work is not yet complete. Missing from the recovered collection of the voices of nineteenth-century women who published their interpretations of the Bible are the voices of Canadian women. This thesis attempts to fill in this lacuna. It will provide the first list of nineteenth-century Canadian women interpreters of the Bible that, while not comprehensive, is nevertheless impressive in size given the population numbers and the constraints faced by Canadian women in the nineteenth century. It will analyze the writings of representative women who published their interpretations of the Old Testament using varied genres. It will show that Canadian women like their British and American counterparts most often wrote to teach others.3 1 Marion Ann Taylor, “Introduction,” Handbook of Women Biblical Interpreters, ed. Marion Ann Taylor and Agnes Choi (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Academic, 2012), 1. 2 Ibid., 2. 3 Three factors account for my focus on Canadian women interpreters of the Old Testament: my major in Old Testament studies; my interest in recovering the voices of Canadian women; my background as an educator. 1 2 It will demonstrate that Canadian women