CODESRIA 12th General Assembly Governing the African Public Sphere 12e Assemblée générale Administrer l’espace public africain 12a Assembleia Geral Governar o Espaço Público Africano ةيعمجلا ةيمومعلا ةيناثلا رشع ﺣﻜﻢ اﻟﻔﻀﺎء اﻟﻌﺎم اﻹﻓﺮﻳﻘﻰ Governing “Ethnicized” Public Sphere: Lessons from the Nigerian Case Orji Nkwachukwu Ebonyi State University 07-11/12/2008 Yaoundé, Cameroun Abstract This paper analyzes the role of power-sharing in governing the Nigerian public sphere. It examines the meaning, actors, procedures and practices of power-sharing in Nigeria. The paper assesses the opportunities and challenges arising from the use of power-sharing as a method of governing the public sphere and highlights the lessons that Nigeria’s experience presents to other African countries struggling with the challenge of ethnic diversity. The paper argues that power-sharing as it is being practiced in Nigeria widens the asymmetrical and oligarchic power of the dominant elite groups, creates a dependency syndrome, and hampers the growth of democracy. It contends that the Nigerian case exposes the contradictions and limitations of power-sharing as an institutional approach to the regulation of the public sphere. Introduction Nigeria’s heritage of ethnic diversity has had an overwhelming impact on the country’s public sphere, leading to its “ethnicization”. On the other hand, the stiff political competition among the elite has resulted in the “politicization” of ethnicity in the country. The result of the above is a highly contested public sphere, which has been made the arena of rhetorical confrontations between various ethnic groups in the country. However since the 1970s, the Nigerian political elite have adopted power-sharing as a strategy to manage inter-group relations, mitigate the negative effects of ethnic politics, and transform the “ethnicized” public sphere through the introduction of the discourse of “unity in diversity”. The adoption of power-sharing is an outcome of the elite soul-searching that followed the end of the Nigerian civil war in 1970 as well as a result of changes in the nature of federal-state relations in the country (see Orji 2008). Power-sharing in Nigeria expresses the tendency of the elite to govern the public space, manage ethnic diversity, and promote a Nigerian State project by avoiding divisive politics and emphasizing ethno-regional equilibrium in resource distribution. This paper analyzes power-sharing as a method of governing the Nigerian public sphere. It argues that power-sharing serves as an arrangement to resolve the contestations among the plurality of competing publics. The paper gives an overview of the challenges and opportunities arising from the practice of power-sharing as well as the lessons that Nigeria’s experience presents to other African countries struggling with the challenge of ethnic diversity. This paper is organized into three main sections. The first provides an 1 understanding of the concept of public sphere. It examines the Habermasian conception of public sphere and argues that Habermas’ concept of public sphere is not an appropriate guide to the analysis of public sphere in ethnically diverse societies in Africa. Contrary to Habermas’ idea of a single, all-encompassing public sphere, the paper argues that the public sphere in many African countries is atomized into a multiplicity of competing publics, creating the need to regulate inter-public interactions in the countries. The second section examines efforts to regulate the Nigerian public sphere through the practice of power-sharing. It highlights the key actors in the Nigerian public sphere, the power-sharing procedures they adopt, the challenges and opportunities of power-sharing as well as the ways in which the public sphere has been regulated within the context of power-sharing. The paper ends in the third section with analysis of the lessons that can be drawn from the Nigerian case. The public sphere: a conceptual reflection The concept of public sphere was popularized by German historian Jurgen Habermas. Habermas sees the public sphere as “a realm of social life in which something approaching public opinion can be formed” (Habermas 1974:49). This realm represents an arena where people gather together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through discussion influence political action. The public sphere as a discursive space mediates between the “private sphere” and the “sphere of public authority”1. Habermas notes that newspapers, magazines, radio and television are the key media of the contemporary public sphere and agencies through which the authority of the state can be regulated. The media of mass communication promote the idea of participatory democracy through providing the framework for the formation of public opinion and the translation of the opinion into political action. Habermas distinguishes between literary and political public spheres. The political public sphere is the arena for public discussion of issues which are connected to the activity of the state, while the literary public sphere offers the people the freedom of assembly and association as well as the freedom to express and publish their opinions about matters of general interest. The major actors in the political public sphere are social organizations which deal with the state. Often, these organizations relate directly with state institutions or indirectly through the political parties (see Ferree, Gamson, Gerhards and Rutch 2002). 1 The private sphere comprised the civil society while the state makes up the sphere of public authority. 2 In his analysis of the development of public sphere in Western Europe, Habermas identifies three major institutional criteria underlying the emergence of the public sphere. The first is disregard of status. Here, it is assumed that the public sphere promotes “a kind of social intercourse that, far from presupposing the equality of status, disregarded status altogether” (Habermas 1989: 36). The second criterion is that the public sphere must constitute a domain of common concern. By “domain of common concern”, Habermas maintains that discussion in the public sphere should highlight issues that affect the well-being of the entire society as well as problematize issues that have not been previously questioned. Lastly, there is the criterion of inclusivity, which requires that the public sphere must not “close itself off entirely and become consolidated as a clique” (Habermas 1989:36). Rather, the public sphere should represent an “inclusive public of all private people, persons who – insofar they were propertied and educated – as readers, listeners, and spectators could avail themselves via the market of the objects that were subject to discussion” (Habermas 1989:36). The above “institutional criteria” outlined by Habermas have attracted strong criticisms. Nancy Fraser (1990) argues that the criteria do not fit the reality, because Habermas’ bourgeois public sphere was characterized by hegemonic dominance and exclusion rather than inclusivity and disregard for status. Fraser claims that the Habermas’ public sphere discriminated against women and people in the lower social strata of the society. She maintains that the bourgeois public sphere was an arena for recruiting bourgeois men into governing positions and as such, the sphere was made inaccessible to people considered inferior based on their gender, social status, ethnicity, and property ownership. Fraser also noted the difficulties associated with defining Habermas’ criteria of “common concern”. To her, “there are no naturally given, a priori boundaries” between private and public matters or matters of common concern (Fraser 1990:57). She cites the case of domestic violence, a matter previously regarded as private, but which has now been generally accepted as a common concern. In all, Fraser claims that Habermas’ bourgeois public sphere did not offer a new, all-inclusive political realm. Rather, it shifted political power from “a repressive mode of domination to a hegemonic one” in which rule by power is replaced with rule by the majority ideology (Fraser 1990:62). Another contested issue regarding Habermas’ theory of public sphere is the question of whether and to what extent the theory could be applied to countries outside Western Europe. I will argue that Habermas’ conception of the public sphere is not applicable to many African 3 countries for two reasons. The first reason follows an argument developed by Philip Huang (1993) that Habermas formulated his theory of public sphere as a Western European phenomenon, which is too historically specific to be a guide for analyzing public sphere elsewhere. The second reason points to Habermas’ treatment of the public sphere as a “single, comprehensive public sphere” (Fraser 1990:62); and his failure to consider the fact that public sphere in some countries is constituted by a plurality of competing publics. As Ekeh (1975:92) warns, the “extension of the Western conception of politics in terms of a monolithic public realm morally bound to the private realm can only be made at conceptual and theoretical peril”. Thus, the Habermasian conception of the public sphere falls short of being a useful guide for analyzing the public sphere in the African countries with multiplicity of competing publics. A look at many African countries shows that public life is not confined to a single, all- embracing public sphere as Habermas would expect. Instead, there exists a multiplicity of publics that relate with