Paul Revere's Metallurgical Ride: Craft and Proto-Industry in Early America ARCHNV by _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Robert Martello MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY M.S. Environmental Engineering Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1996 APO 21 B.S. Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Science LIBRARIES Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1990 Submitted to the Doctoral Program in the History and Social Study of Science and Technology in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology February 2001 2000 Robert Martello, All Rights Reserved The author hereby grants to MIT permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly paper and electronic copies of this thesis document in whole or in part. Signature of Author: Signature Redacted Program in the History and Social Study of Science and Technology September 15, 2000 Signature Redacted Certified by: , , Merritt Roe Smith, Proftssor of the History of Technology Director, Program in the History and Social Study of Science and Technology Signature Redacted Pauline Maier, Profess(r of History Signature Redacted 7 Hrriet Ritvo, OrofedLor of History Head, History Faculty - U ~ A Paul Revere's Metallurgical Ride: Craft and Proto-Industry in Early America by Robert Martello Submitted to the Doctoral Program in the History and Social Study of Science and Technology on September 15, 2000 in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ABSTRACT This dissertation investigates Paul Revere's life and career from a technological perspective. Although several studies have already described Revere's patriotic exploits, his lifetime of work in many different metallurgical disciplines reveals much about his goals and methods. His "metallurgical ride" also provides insights into the economic and technological climate of early American society. Paul Revere began his career as an apprentice in his father's silversmith shop and rose to the pinnacle of his craft. But after the Revolutionary War he aspired to a loftier position. He learned and practiced the trades of iron casting, bronze bell and cannon casting, malleable copper working, and finally the rolling of sheet copper, a naval technology previously restricted to Europe. This occupational trajectory provided him with moderate wealth as well as much of the social status he fervently desired. Paul Revere's career straddles the Revolutionary War and illustrates the gradual nationwide transition from craft practices to the growth of industrial capitalism. By combining new technical and managerial practices with older craft traditions he continually improved his business while avoiding many of the disruptions that plagued more trend-setting establishments. His experiences indicate that the young and inexperienced federal government still found ways to promote national industry and technological endeavors. Government funding enabled him to overcome the capital shortage that limited his operations from the beginning. And Revere's ability to synthesize technological knowledge from different fields alters the prevailing model of early technology transfer, which emphasizes the emigration of skilled British laborers. Thesis Supervisor: Merritt Roe Smith Title: Professor of the History of Technology 2 -4 Table of Contents TABLE OF FIGURES 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 8 NOTE ABOUT SOURCES 11 INTRODUCTION: THE REAL REVERE 12 Theme One: The Transition from Craft to Industry 14 Theme Two: Technology Transfer and "Borrowing" 16 Theme Three: Government Sponsorship of Industry and Technological Innovation 19 Narrative Framework and Chapter Description 21 CHAPTER ONE: THE RELUCTANT CRAFTSMAN Artisan, Silverworker, and Would-be Merchant (1754-1789) 25 Background: The "Art and Mystery" of the Artisan 26 European Guilds and American Changes 27 The Silver Tradition 29 Colonial Class and Labor 30 Youth and Heritage 33 Rivoires and Hitchborns 33 The Apprentice and his Father 34 Head of the Household: Master Paul 37 rhe Revere Shop: Before the Revolution 38 Equipment and Technical Procedures 39 The Versatile Craftsman 41 Luxury Items, Art, and Reputation 42 The Revere Network: Friends, Patrons, Colleagues, and Apprentices 45 Success, and Looking Forward 47 3 A Interludes from Silver 48 Patriotand Soldier 49 The Versatile Technician 50 Quest for Gentility: The Would-be Merchant 52 The Postwar Revere Silvershop 56 From Master to Manager 56 The Shift Toward Standardization 58 The Rolling Mill 59 The FederalStyle and Artistic Mastery 60 The Making of an Entrepreneur: Looking Ahead to Post-Craftsmanship 61 CHAPTER TWO: TO RUN A "FURNASS" Iron, Bell, and Cannon Casting (1788-1795) 65 The Making of a Founder 67 Direct versus Indirect Ironworking: Bloomeries and Blast Furnaces 67 The Importance of Timing: American Iron History 70 The Importance of Experience. Revere's Background and LearningProcess 71 The Startup Process 75 Running the Iron Foundry 77 Equipment and ProductionMethods 78 Raw Materialsand Environmental Impacts 80 Labor 85 New ManagerialTechniques 87 Product Line andProfits 88 Beyond Iron 90 Becoming a Bellmaker: An Art and a Science 91 History of an Art. Bellmaking 91 4 -4 Revere's Education 94 Operations and Feedback 96 Revere the Cannon Founder 99 Colonial Cannon Casting 100 The Casting Process 101 Revere's Early Cannon Transactions 102 Raw Materials 105 Labor 107 ManagerialAdvances and ContractualDifficulties 110 Transition and Growth 112 CHAPTER THREE: THE ROAD TO ROLLING COPPER Government Contracting and Malleable Copperworking (1795-1802) 115 Malleable Copper: Bolts, Spikes, and Naval Contracting 117 American Copperworking and the "Secret" of Malleable Copper 117 Technical Experimentation and Improvement 120 Malleable Copper Contractsand Profits 125 Management, Networking, and Adaptation 128 The Early Federal Government: Problems and Promise 130 Roots of Inexperience 131 Benjamin Stoddert and the American Navy 132 The Search for Sheathing 138 Enter Revere 143 Reenter the Government 150 A Match Made in Heaven? 158 5 -J CHAPTER FOUR: BECOMING INDUSTRIAL Copper Roller and Manager (1802-1811) 162 The Onset of Industrialism 163 Revere's Managerial Practices: Traditional versus Modern 167 OrganizationalChanges: Single Proprietor, Partnership, or Corporation? 169 Accounting, Contract Management, and New Business Practices 172 Labor Practices 176 Raw MaterialShortages and ProcurementStrategies: Copper and Wood 184 Water Power: Shortages and Control Strategies 188 RiparianLitigation: Competingfor Control of a Scarce Resource 191 ContinuedLitigation: Control of Property 198 Lobbying the Government: Frustration,Embargo, and the Tariff Controversy 200 The Ultimate Technology Transfer: Industrial Espionage 208 Revere's Technical Practices and Improvements 212 Bells and Cannon 215 Bolts, Spikes, and Fasteners 217 Naval Sheathing 220 Robert Fulton, Boilerplate, and Other Products 224 Old and New 227 CONCLUSION 229 Tools of the Trade: The Components of Revere's Success 232 Unpacking Success: Revere's Goals and Values 236 6 Table of Figures: Figure 0.1: Major Events in Paul Revere's Career 21 Figure 2.1: Bell Size and Shape Ratios 96 Figure 2.2: Bell Production and Weights 97 Figure 2.3: Total Ordnance Production 105 Figure 2.4: May 1799 Furnace Inventory 106 Figure 2.5: April 1796 Payments to Faxon 109 Figure 3.1: Furnace Expenditures, 1799-1801 127 Figure 3.2: Revere's "Furnace" Income Breakdown, 1801 155 Figure 3.3: Revere's "Furnace" Expenses, 1801 156 Figure 3.4: Revere's Second Letter to Benjamin Stoddert 161 Figure 4.1: Revere's Sheet Copper Profits, 1804-5 and 1806-7 175 Figure 4.2: Size of Workforce and Labor Costs 178 Figure 4.3: Employee Salaries, 1802-1806 182 Figure 4.4: Neponset River Flow in 1909 189 7 ------- ------ -- 7 1- J ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS For the past three and a half years this dissertation has been a major part of my life. But for the past five months it has been my life. Now, with the finish line stretched out before me, I can look back over these most recent experiences with the humor they deserve. The dissertation became a friendly but intrusive travel companion on a vacation to Nuevo Vallarta about four months ago. While the rest of my family enjoyed the beach, pool, and spa, I read and typed in my hotel room while baffling the maids with religious exclamations (I confused the terms for day and deity). A month later I was racing to complete a first draft for my dissertation committee before leaving for a long weekend vacation in San Francisco. I initially scheduled a three-day safety net between document delivery and my trip. Soon I realized it would be two days. Then one. I found myself asking certain fundamental questions about the dissertation as the deadline drew near. Did I actually need a conclusion? What's wrong with a one-page introduction? Do footnotes really make the world a better place? I finished an abridged version the night before my trip, and literally submitted it on the way to the airport. Five days later, a summer's worth of edits were waiting for me. Every aspect of this dissertation is a group effort and I am greatly indebted to all of my friends and colleagues. My education at MIT was made possible by generous fellowships from the Dibner Institute, and I gratefully acknowledge all the support I have received there over the years. I have had the great fortune of performing this research in the Boston area, the home of many outstanding historical societies. These groups have offered me invaluable assistance with specific research tasks, and also provided provocative and creative communities for historical discourse and not-quite-historical fraternizing. The Bostonian Society has done a wonderful job of creating a graduate student collaborative society, and I hope their efforts continue in the years to come. I cannot begin to thank the Paul Revere Memorial Association for all the advice, funding, and friendship they have given me. I am indebted to Patrick Leehey and Nina Zanneri for bringing history to life and keeping it fun. When we talk about Revere's colonial activities I feel as if I am gossiping about a nearby friend, and this mentality has led me 8 to new ideas and insights.