ISSUE 2005 PROGRESS IN PHYSICS VOLUME 3 ISSN 1555-5534 The Journal on Advanced Studies in Theoretical and Experimental Physics, including Related Themes from Mathematics PROGRESS IN PHYSICS A quarterly issue scientific journal, registered with the Library of Congress (DC). ISSN: 1555-5534 (print) This journal is peer reviewed and included in the abstracting and indexing coverage of: ISSN: 1555-5615 (online) Mathematical Reviews and MathSciNet (AMS, USA), DOAJ of Lund University (Sweden), 4 issues per annum Referativnyi Zhurnal VINITI (Russia), etc. Electronic version of this journal: OCTOBER 2005 VOLUME 3 http://www.geocities.com/ptep_online To order printed issues of this journal, con- CONTENTS tact the Editor in Chief. Chief Editor H. Arp Observational Cosmology: From High Redshift Galaxies to the Blue Dmitri Rabounski Pacific.. .3 [email protected] S. J. Crothers On the General Solution to Einstein’s Vacuum Field for Associate Editors the Point-Mass when λ = 0 and Its Consequences for Relativistic Cos- Prof. Florentin Smarandache mology...............................................................76 [email protected] Dr. Larissa Borissova H. Ratcliffe The First Crisis in Cosmology Conference. Mon¸cao,˜ Portugal, [email protected] June 23–25, 2005. 19 Stephen J. Crothers [email protected] R. T. Cahill The Michelson and Morley 1887 Experiment and the Discovery of Absolute Motion. 25 Department of Mathematics, University of New Mexico, 200 College Road, Gallup, R. T. Cahill Gravity Probe B Frame-Dragging Effect. 30 NM 87301, USA R. Oros di Bartini Relations Between Physical Constants. 34 S. J. Crothers Introducing Distance and Measurement in General Relativity: Copyright c Progress in Physics, 2005 Changes for the Standard Tests and the Cosmological Large-Scale.. .41 All rights reserved. Any part of Progress in J. Dunning-Davies A Re-Examination of Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Equa- Physics howsoever used in other publica- tions must include an appropriate citation tions................................................................48 of this journal. R. T. Cahill Black Holes in Elliptical and Spiral Galaxies and in Globular Authors of articles published in Progress in Physics retain their rights to use their own Clusters. 51 articles in any other publications and in any E. Gaastra Is the Biggest Paradigm Shift in the History of Science at Hand? . 57 way they see fit. N. Kozyrev Sources of Stellar Energy and the Theory of the Internal Consti- This journal is powered by BaKoMa-TEX tution of Stars. 61 A variety of books can be downloaded free from the E-library of Science: http://www.gallup.unm.edu/ smarandache ∼ ISSN: 1555-5534 (print) ISSN: 1555-5615 (online) Standard Address Number: 297-5092 Printed in the United States of America Information for Authors and Subscribers Progress in Physics has been created for publications on advanced studies in theoretical and experimental physics, including related themes from mathematics. All submitted papers should be professional, in good English, containing a brief review of a problem and obtained results. All submissions should be designed in LATEX format using Progress in Physics template. This template can be downloaded from Progress in Physics home page http://www.geocities.com/ptep_online. Abstract and the necessary information about author(s) should be included into the papers. To submit a paper, mail the file(s) to Chief Editor. All submitted papers should be as brief as possible. Beginning from 2006 we accept only short papers, no longer than 8 journal pages. Short articles are preferable. All that has been accepted for the online issue of Progress in Physics is printed in the paper version of the journal. To order printed issues, contact Chief Editor. This journal is non-commercial, academic edition. It is printed from private donations. October, 2005 PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Volume 3 Observational Cosmology: From High Redshift Galaxies to the Blue Pacific Halton Arp Max-Planck-Institut fur¨ Astrophysik, Karl Schwarzschild-Str.1, Postfach 1317, D-85741 Garching, Germany E-mail: [email protected] 1 Birth of galaxies demonstrated in Arp and Russell, 2001 [1]. Individual cases of strong X-ray clusters are exemplified by elongations and Observed: Ejection of high redshift, low luminosity quasars connections as shown in the ejecting galaxy Arp 220, in Abell from active galaxy nuclei. 3667 and from NGC 720 (again, summarized in Arp, 2003 Shown by radio and X-ray pairs, alignments and lumin- [4]). Motion is confirmed by bow shocks and elongation is ous connecting filaments. Emergent velocities are much less interpreted as ablation trails. In short — if a quasar evolves than intrinsic redshift. Stripping of radio plasmas. Probabi- into a galaxy, a broken up quasar evolves into a group of lities of accidental association negligible. See Arp, 2003 [4] galaxies. for customarily supressed details. Observed: Evolution of quasars into normal companion ga- 2 Redshift is the key laxies. The large number of ejected objects enables a view of Observed: The whole quasar or galaxy is intrinsically red- empirical evolution from high surface brightness quasars shifted. through compact galaxies. From gaseous plasmoids to fo- Objects with the same path length to the observer have rmation of atoms and stars. From high redshift to low. much different redshifts and all parts of the object are shifted closely the same amount. Tired light is ruled out and also gravitational redshifting. The fundamental assumption: Are particle masses con- stant? The photon emitted in an orbital transition of an electron in an atom can only be redshifted if its mass is initially small. As time goes on the electron communicates with more and more matter within a sphere whose limit is expanding at velocity c. If the masses of electrons increase, emitted photons change from an initially high redshift to a lower redshift with time (see Narlikar and Arp, 1993 [6]) Fig. 1: Enhanced Hubble Space Telescope image showing ejection Predicted consequences: Quasars are born with high red- wake from the center of NGC 7319 (redshift z = 0.022) to within shift and evolve into galaxies of lower redshift. about 3.4 arcsec of the quasar (redshift z = 2.11) Near zero mass particles evolve from energy conditions Observed: Younger objects have higher intrinsic redshifts. in an active nucleus. (If particle masses have to be created In groups, star forming galaxies have systematically sometime, it seems easier to grow things from a low mass higher redshifts, e. g. spiral galaxies. Even companions in state rather than producing them instantaneously in a finished evolved groups like our own Andromeda Group or the nearby state.) M81 group still have small, residual redshift excesses relative DARK MATTER: The establishment gets it right, sort of. to their parent. In the Big Bang, gas blobs in the initial, hot universe Observed: X-ray and radio emission generally indicate have to condense into things we now see like quasars and early evolutionary stages and intrinsic redshift. galaxies. But we know hot gas blobs just go poof! Lots of Plasmoids ejected from an active nucleus can fragment dark matter (cold) had to be hypothesized to condense the or ablate during passage through galactic and intergalactic gas cloud. They are still looking for it. medium which results in the forming of groups and clusters But low mass particles must slow their velocities in order of proto galaxies. The most difficult result for astronomers to conserve momentum as their mass grows. Temperature is to accept is galaxy clusters which have intrinsic redshifts. internal velocity. Thus the plasmoid cools and condenses its Yet the association of clusters with lower redshift parents is increasing mass into a compact quasar. So maybe we H. Arp. Observational Cosmology. From High Redshift Galaxies to the Blue Pacific 3 Volume 3 PROGRESS IN PHYSICS October, 2005 observed from the most reliable Cepheid distances is H0 = = 55 (Arp, 2002 [3]). What are the chances of obtaining the correct Hubble constant from an incorrect theory with no adjustable parameters? If this is correct there is negligible room for expansion of the universe. Observed: The current Hubble constant is too large. A large amount of observing time on the Hubble Space Telescope was devoted to observing Cepheid variables whose distances divided into their redshifts gave a definitive value of H0 = 72. That required the reintroduction of Einstein’s cosmological constant to adjust to the observations. But H0 = 72 was wrong because the higher redshift galaxies in the sample included younger (ScI) galaxies which had appreciable intrinsic redshifts. Independent distances to these galaxies by means of rotational luminosity distances (Tully-Fisher distances) also showed this class of galaxies had intrinsic redshifts which gave too high a Hubble constant (Russell, 2002 [8]) In fact well known clusters of galaxies gives H0’s in the 90’s (Russell, private communication) which clearly shows that Fig. 2: Schematic representation of quasars and companion galaxies neither do we have a correct distance scale or understanding found associated with central galaxies from 1966 to present. The of the nature of galaxy clusters. progression of characteristics is empirical but is also required by the variable mass theory of Narlikar and Arp, 1993 [6] DARK ENERGY: Expansion now claimed to be acceler- ation. have been observing dark matter ever since the discovery of As distance measures were extended to greater distances quasars! After all, what’s in a name? by using Supernovae as standard candles it was found that the distant Supernovae were somewhat too faint. This led Observed: Ambarzumian sees new galaxies. to a smaller H0 and hence an acceleration compared to In the late 1950’s when the prestigious Armenian astro- the supposed present day H0 = 72. Of course the younger nomer, Viktor Ambarzumian was president of the Interna- Supernovae could be intrinsically fainter and also we have tional Astronomical Union he said that just looking at pic- seen the accepted present day H0 is too large.