Notes Chapter 1 The Rebel with a Cause? The Anti-Heroic Figure in American Fiction of the 1960s 1. Ihab Hassan, “The Anti-Hero in Modern British and American Fiction,” in Rumors of Change (1959; repr., Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1995), 55–67, p. 55. 2. David Galloway, The Absurd Hero in American Fiction (Austin: University of Texas Printing, 1970), 9. 3. Philip Rice and Patricia Waugh, “Histories and Textuality,” in Modern Literary Theory, ed. Philip Rice and Patricia Waugh, rev. ed. (1989; repr., London: Arnold, 2001), 252–256, p. 253. 4. Helen Weinberg, The New Novel in America: The Kafka Mode in Contemporary Fiction (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1970), 11. 5. Ibid., 55. 6. Tony Tanner, City of Words (London: Jonathan Cape, 1971), 146. 7. There are of course important novels written in the 1960s that can be classified as metafiction or surfiction such as Thomas Pynchon’s V (1963), The Crying of Lot 49 (1967), and Richard Brautigan’s Trout Fishing in America (1967). However, the majority of significant novels written during the 1960s still maintain an (at least ostensible) adherence to a more naturalist form and structure. 8. Thomas Berger, Little Big Man, rev. ed. (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1965; London: Harvill Press, 1999), 312. Citations are to the Harvill Press edition. 9. John Barth, “The Literature of Exhaustion,” in The Friday Book: Essays and Other Nonfiction (1984; Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1997), 62–76, p. 62. 10. Louis D. Rubin Jr., “The Great American Joke,” in What’s So Funny? Humor in American Culture, ed. Nancy A. Walker (Wilmington: Scholarly Resources, 1998), 107–119. (Hereafter cited in text as WSF.) 11. Joseph Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces, rev. ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1948; London: Paladin, 1988; London: Harper Collins, 1993), 387. Citations are to the Harper Collins edition. 154 NOTES 12. Lilian R. Furst and James D. Wilson, “Editor’s Comments,” in Studies in The Literary Imagination, ed. Lilian R. Furst and James D. Wilson (Special Journal Issue), 9 (Spring 1976): 5–9, 6. 13. Ibid. 14. Campbell, 389. 15. Contempt toward the traditional heroic archetypes of American cul- ture is evident within much of the rhetoric of the counterculture; one of the more infamous examples being John Lennon’s 1966 proclama- tion that the Beatles were more popular than Jesus Christ. See John Lennon cited in Chia Evers (2003). John Lennon Proclaims Beatles “More Popular than Jesus” (March 4, 1966) [online.]. Available: http:// www.newsoftheodd.com/article1012.html [2006, March 26]. 16. Theodore Roszak, The Making of a Counter Culture: Reflections on the Technocratic Society and Its Youthful Opposition, rev. ed. (1968; repr., London: Faber, 1969), 12. 17. Lillian R. Furst, “The Romantic Hero, or Is He an Anti-Hero?” in Studies in the Literary Imagination, ed. Lilian R. Furst and James D. Wilson (Special Journal Issue), 9 (Spring 1976): 53–69, 53. 18. Leslie Fiedler, Love and Death in the American Novel, rev. ed. (New York: Criterion, 1960; London: Granada, 1970), 33. Citations are to the Granada edition. 19. Furst, Romantic Hero, 55. 20. Ibid. 21. Ibid., 57–58. 22. Ibid., 56. 23. Campbell, 391. 24. Mark Twain, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, rev. ed. (1884; repr., Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 2003), 51. 25. Albert Camus, The Rebel, trans. Anthony Bower, rev. ed. (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1953; London; Peregrine Books, 1962; Harmonds- worth: Penguin, 1971), 20. Citations are to the Penguin edition. 26. Ibid. 27. Albert Camus, The Myth of Sisyphus, trans. Justin O’ Brien (1942; London: Hamish Hamilton, 1971), 7. 28. S. Beynon John, “Albert Camus: A British View,” in Camus: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Germaine Brée (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1965), 85–91, p. 90. 29. Albert Camus, Selected Essays and Notebooks, trans. Philip Thody (1962–1965; repr., Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1970), 36. 30. Albert Camus, Resistance, Rebellion and Death, trans. Justin O’ Brien, rev. ed. (1961; repr., London: Hamish Hamilton, 1964), 191. 31. Serge Doubrovsky, “The Ethics of Albert Camus,” in Camus: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Germaine Brée (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1965), 71–84, p. 74. 32. Ibid., 76. NOTES 155 33. Richard Lehan, “Existentialism in Recent American Fiction: The Demonic Quest,” in Texas Studies in Literature and Language, 1 (1959): 181–201, pp. 200–201. 34. Doubrovsky, 16. 35. Furst and Wilson, 7. 36. Ibid. 37. Hassan, Rumors, 55. 38. Ken Kesey, One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest, rev. ed. (London: Methuen & Co: 1962; London: Calder & Boyars: 1972; London: Picador, 1973; London: Marion Boyars, 1979), 243. Citations are to the Picador edition. 39. Ibid., 77. 40. Ibid., 101. 41. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., “The Decline of Heroes,” in Heroes and Anti-Heroes, ed. Harold Lubin (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, 1968), 341–350, p. 342. 42. Harold Lubin, “From Anti-Hero to Non-Hero,” in Heroes and Anti- Heroes, ed. Harold Lubin (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, 1968), 310–318, p. 310. 43. Daniel Boorstin, The Image, or What Happened to the American Dream (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1961), 59–60. 44. Stan Smith, A Sadly Contracted Hero—The Comic Self in Post-War American Fiction (London: British Association for American Studies, 1981), 5. 45. Often with the setting in a past war acting as a convenient metaphor for critiquing the contemporary war in Vietnam. 46. Lubin, “From Anti-Hero to Non-Hero,” 312. 47. Ibid., 313. 48. Donn Pearce, Cool Hand Luke (1966; repr., London: Prion Books, 1999), 37. Citations are to the Prion edition. (Hereafter cited in the text as CHL.) 49. Lyndon Johnson, The University of Kansas, Lyndon Baines Johnson Inaugural Address Wednesday, January 20, 1965 (1995) [online]. Available: http://www.ku.edu/carrie/docs/texts/45john1.htm [2005, February 18]. 50. Winston Churchill, C.N.N Interactive, Churchill’s Iron Curtain Speech (1999) [online]. Available: http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold. war/episodes/02/documents/churchill/ [2005. February 18]. 51. Walter Lippman cited in the Indiana University School of Honors– Bloomington. (2002). Honors | American Century Lives H204 | 0012 | N. Cullather [online]. Available: http://www.indiana.edu/~deanfac/ blfal02/hon/hon_h204_0012.html [2005. February 18]. 52. In 1950 America pledged military and economic aid to the Republic of Korea in order to protect them from any ‘communist attack’ by North Korea. 156 NOTES 53. The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 marked the culmination of an ongoing conflict between America and Cuba’s Fidel Castro, one that had seen President Eisenhower attempt to remove the communist leader in the Bay of Pigs fiasco the previous year. 54. See Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic Books, 1990). 55. See Larry May, Recasting America: Culture and Politics in the Age of the Cold War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988). 56. Peter Braunstein and Michael William Doyle, “Introduction: Historicizing the American Counterculture of the 1960s and ‘70s,” in Imagine Nation: The American Counterculture of the 1960s & ‘70s, ed. Peter Braunstein and Michael William Doyle (London: Routledge, 2002), 5–14, p. 9. 57. Anon., The University of Indiana, The Declaration of Independence of the Thirteen Colonies, In Congress, July 4th, 1776 (1995) [online]. Available: www.law.indiana.edu/uslawdocs/declaration.html [2006, February 16]. 58. While the House Committee on Un-American Activities was created with the intention of investigating anti-American propaganda, it was condemned for persecuting people on account of their personal or political beliefs. Most notably, accusations were made against film star Charlie Chaplin, resulting in his relocation to Switzerland. See Peter Braunstein, “Forever Young: Insurgent Youth and the Sixties Culture of Rejuvenation,” in Imagine Nation: The American Counterculture of the 1960s & ‘70s, ed. by Peter Braunstein and Michael William Doyle (London: Routledge, 2002), 243–273, p. 269. 59. Schlesinger Jr., 343. 60. This was a rising area of concern for many academics and social theo- rists. Indeed Vance Packard discusses the increasing alienation felt by the individual within society, detailing a fellow study by academic Peter M. Blau in which Blau discovers that “A large and increasing proportion of the American people spend their working lives as small cogs in the complex mechanisms of bureaucratic organizations.” See Vance Packard, The Status Seekers, rev. ed. (New York: David McKay, 1959; London: Longmans, 1960; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1961), 31. Citations are to the Penguin edition. 61. Schlesinger Jr., 344. 62. While it is never possible to fully isolate time periods as being entirely distinct from each other, I have chosen to focus upon novels pub- lished within the 1960s as this period seems to mark a highpoint in the utilization of the anti-heroic figure within American fiction. Certainly there are significant examples in novels produced during the 1950s and 1970s: J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye (1951), Ralph Ellison’s The Invisible Man (1952), Saul Bellow’s The Adventures of Augie March (1953), Jack Kerouac’s On the Road NOTES 157 (1957), Tom Robbins’ Even Cowgirls Get the Blues (1976), and John Irving’s The World According to Garp (1978). However, the fact remains that novels published within the 1960s appear to epitomize the culmination of a modernist preoccupation with character, before the postmodernist radicalization instigated by authors such as Donald Bartheleme in Snow White (1967), Thomas Pynchon in V (1963), and Gravity’s Rainbow (1973) occurs. This temporarily sidelines the importance of the anti-heroic figure until it reemerges in the 1990s in novels such as Bret Easton Ellis’ American Psycho (1991) and Chuck Palahniuk’s Fight Club (1996). 63. Herbert Marcuse, One Dimensional Man (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1964), 13–14. 64. Lewis Mumford, The Myth of the Machine (New York: Brace & World, 1967), 62–63.