Notes Chapter 2 1. As with Messiaen, who associates colours with several of his 'modes of limited transposition'. Various sources cited in Robert Sherlaw Johnson, Messiaen (London: Dent, 1975), p. 19, etc. 2. Trevor Wishart discusses this further in Chapter 3. 3. Since its foundation in 1948 by Pierre Schaeffer, this institution - both a studio and a group of composers - has had several names. It is referred to throughout this chapter as the Groupe de Recherches Musicales or GRM. 4. A phrase Ferrari used in conversation with Hansjorg Pauli, and quoted by the larter in his Fur wen komponieren Sie eigentlich? (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 1971), p. 41. 5. Claude Levi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked (London: Cape, 1970), p. 24. 6. These, and related discussions, are covered in such text-books as R. B. Braith­ waite, Scientific Explanation (Cambridge: University Press, 1968), especially ch.9. 7. Pierre Schaeffer, Traite des objets musicaux (Paris: Seuil, 1966). 8. C. Hempel and P. Oppenheim, 'Studies in the Logic of Explanation' in The Structure of Scientific Thought, ed. E. H. Madden (Buffalo: University Press, 1960). 9. Boulez on Music Today (London: Faber and Faber, 1971), p. 31. lO. Ibid. p. 31. 11. E.g. Plus-Minus, Prozession, Spiral, Kurzwellen, Pole, Expo. 12. Aus den sieben Tagen, Fur kommende Zeiten. 13. Boulez (see Note 9), p. 22. 14. Study II score, Universal Edition UE 12466, pp. IV-VI. 15. Seppo Heikinheimo, The Electronic Music of Karlheinz Stockhausen (Helsinki: Suomen Musiikkitieteelinen Seura, 1972), p. 152. 218 I LANGUAGE OF ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC 16. As given in Richard Kostelanetz, fohn Cage (New York: Praeger, 1970; and London: Allen Lane, 1971), pp. 109-11. 17. Two versions of Fontana Mix exist on disc: one 'fixed' on tape by the composer (available on Vox Turnabout), the other a recording of a 'live' version (Fontana MixlFeed) by the percussionist Max Neuhaus (on Columbia). 18. IRCAM: the Institute de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique, part of the Pompidou Centre in Paris and directed since its establishment in 1974 by Pierre Boulez. 19. The term 'Stanford' is used to refer to the Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics, Stanford University, California. 20. MUSIC V is a music language for use on mainframe computers written by Max Mathews at Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1967-8. Originally used primarily for synthesis, subsequent versions have included extensive signal processing possibilities for recorded sounds. 21. CHANT is a program developed at IRCAM by Xavier Rodet, Yves Potard and Jean-Baptiste Barriere based on a model of the vocal tract and voice production. See their article 'The CHANT Project: From the Synthesis of the Singing Voice to Synthesis in General', CMf [Computer Musicfournal) , VIII/3 (1984), pp. 15-31. 22. Further details are available in Jonathan Harvey, 'Mortuos Plango, Vivos Voco: A Realization at IRCAM', CMf, V/4 (1981), pp. 22-4. 23. Denis Smalley, 'Electroacoustic Music in Perspective', sleeve note accompanying the recording of Pentes (UEA Recordings UEA 81063). 24. Denis Smalley, 'Problems of Materials and Structure in Electro-acoustic Music', paper presented at the International Electronic Music Conference, Stockholm, 1981. Edited version reprinted in the EMAS Newsletter, IVIl & 2 (London, 1982), pp. 3-8 & 4-7 respectively. 25. Originally published in the Revue musicale, no. 236 (Paris: Richard-Masse, 1957), but more recently in Pierre Schaeffer, La musique concrete (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1967, 2nd ed. 1973), pp. 28-30. 26. The studio of RAI (Radio Audizioni Italiane, Studio di Fonologia), Milan was established between 1953 and 1955 and originally directed by Luciano Berio. 27. See for example Karl H. Worner, Stockhausen: Life and Work (London: Faber and Faber, 1973), pp. 82-5. 28. As given, for example, in Eine Schlussel fur Momente (Kassel: Edition und Verlag Boczkowski, 1971), p. 9, and reprinted in Robin Maconie, The Works of Karlheinz Stockhausen (Oxford: University Press, 1976), p. 168. 29. Michael McNabb, 'Dreamsong: The Composition', CMf, Vl4 (1981), p. 36. 30. Ibid. pp. 40-42. 31. Ibid. p. 36. 32. From the composer's programme note circulated with the GRM performance copy of the tape. NOTES / 219 33. Pauli (see Note 4), p. 58. 34. Stockhausen, Texte zur Musik 1963-1970, III (Cologne: Dumont Schauberg, 1971), p. 272. 35. See the composer's comments in the introductory notes to Hymnen - on both the record sleeve (Deutsche Grammophon) and in the score (Universal Edition) - in which he explains that many aspects of the composition" ... arose during my work on it, from the universal character of the material on which it is based ... ". 36. Jonathan Cott, Stockhausen: Conversations with the Composer (London: Rob­ son, 1974), pp. 190-91. 37. Stockhausen (see Note 34), p. 80. 38. Trevor Wishart, Red Bird: A Document (published by the composer) is not a score in the accepted sense either for realization or for diffusion. It is an essay describing the philosophy, working method and material transformations of this 45-minute work. 39. Ibid. p. 6; but note that Wishart uses the term 'abstracted' in this quote to mean the same as the word 'abstract' in general use in this chapter. 40. Ibid. p. 7. 41. Pauli (see Note 4), p. 58. 42. The studios of Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR) in Cologne were founded in 1953. Originally the champions of the purely electronic synthesis of sound, though recorded material was integrated from about 1955 (beginning with the work cited). With the exception of Telemusik, all Stockhausen's electroacoustic works cited in this chapter were composed in this studio. 43. This common misconception (masquerading as a simplification) is found in most text-books of electroacoustic music which take an historical view. Chapter 3 1. This chapter is based on Trevor Wishart's book On Sonic Art (York: Trevor Wishart, 83 Heslington Rd., 1985). 2. Pierre Schaeffer, Traite des objets musicaux (Paris: Seuil, 1966). 3. Luc Ferrari, in conversation with Hansjorg Pauli, and quoted in the latter's Fur wen komponieren Sie eigentlich? (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 1971), p. 41. 4. CHANT was developed by Xavier Rodet, Yves Potard and Jean-Baptiste Barriere. 5. Trevor Wishart, Red Bird (York Universiry Studio). Record from Trevor Wishart. 6. On Sonic Art (see Note 1). 7. Claude Levi-Strauss, The Raw and the Cooked (London: Cape, 1970). 8. Murray Schafer, The Tuning of the World (New York: Knopf, 1977). 220 / LANGUAGE OF ELECTROACOUSTIC MUSIC Chapter 4 1. This chapter is a comprehensive revision and extension of a paper originally presented at a conference on electroacoustic music organized by EMS (Elektron­ musikstudion), Stockholm, in 1981. 2. The term 'spectro-morphology' is preferable to the Schaefferian term 'typomor­ phology' for the reasons given in the text. Pierre Schaeffer's Traite des objets musicaux (Paris: Seuil, 1966) is the first significant work to elaborate spectro­ morphological criteria, and it provides the foundations for this chapter. 3. See T. Georgiades, Music and Language: The Rise ofWestern Music as Exempli­ fied in Settings of the Mass, trans. M. L. G611ner (Cambridge: University Press, 1982). 4. 'Reduced listening' (ecoute reduite) is a Schaefferian concept. See Schaeffer (Note 2) and M. Chion, Guide des objets sonores (Paris: Buchet ChastellINA GRM, 1983) for a full discussion. 5. The relationship between 'abstract' and 'concrete' is more complex than this discussion indicates. See Schaeffer (Note 2) and Chion (Note 4). 6. The 'cardinal' and 'ordinal' concepts are Schaeffer's. Further information can be found in Chion (see Note 4), pp. 43-8. 7. The qualities here attributed to 'gesture' and 'texture' can be found in a variety of writings, although not always clearly thought out. Stockhausen's associated concepts of 'gestalt', 'structure', 'stasis' and 'process' are close though muddled (see S. Heikinheimo, The Electronic Music of Karlheinz Stockhausen, Helsinki: Suomen Musiikkitieteelinen Seura, 1972, from p. 139). Boulez refers to 'gesture' and 'contemplation' in connection with the presentation of his work Eclat on the cassette Le temps musical 1, Radio FrancelIRCAM. Harvey discusses 'contem­ plation' in 'Reflection after Composition', Contemporary Music Review, ed. N. Osborne, 111 (Harwood Academic Publishers, 1984), pp. 83-6. 8. No works have been referred to in this chapter. We suggest that no electroacous­ tic work is immune from the questions considered. Two works can be particular­ ly recommended for study because of their comprehensive incorporation of the majority of spectro-morphological issues: Stockhausen's Kontakte and Bernard Parmegiani's De Natura Sonorum. Chapter 5 1. Jan W. Morthenson in a paper delivered at the Third Colloquium of the Confederation Internationale de Musique Electroacoustique, Stockholm, 1986. 2. See D. Keane, 'Some Practical Aesthetic Problems of Electronic Music Composi­ tion', Interface, VIII (1979), pp. 196-7. 3. Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Structures (The Hague: Mouton and Co., 1957). 4. Benjamin Lee Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1956). NOTES / 221 5. As exemplified by the following well-known titles: Language of Art (Nelson Goodman), Art as the Language of the Emotions (c. J. Ducasse), The Language of Art and Art Criticism Uoseph Margolis), The Language of Music (Deryck Cooke), The Language of Modern Music. (Donald Mitchell). 6. Jeremy Campbell, Grammatical Man: Information, Entropy, Language, and Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982), p. 162 and (London, Allen Lane, 1983). 7. Jos Kunst, 'Making Sense in Music I: The Use of Mathematical Logic', Interface, V (1976), p. 5. 8. Bertrand Russell, Selected Papers (New York: Modern Library, 1927), p. 358. 9. From George H. Mead, Mind, Self, and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934). 10. From Gilbert King, 'What is Information?', Automatic Control, a collection of articles reprinted from Scientific American (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1955), pp. 83-6. 11. Neil Postman and Charles Weingartner, Teaching as a Subversive Activity (New York: Delacorte Press, 1966), p.