19 HAG IN0S201 ,095' 1G98-02-16 22 ,.nd Utilization of Natural Resources in the East Usambara Forest Reserves: Conventional Views and Local Perspectives John Francis Kessy PROPOSITIONS 1. Accepting the fact that collection of forest products in Tanzanian forest reserves continues despite the strict access rules, is to accept failure in a constructive way on the part of the Forestry Division. (This study) 2. Trying to preserve all the forest in the East Usambaras carries the risk of losing all of it through unregulated utilization. (This study) 3. Ethnic heterogeneity is not always hostile to joint action. (This study) 4. By focusing biodiversity conservation efforts on forest reserves without giving attention to local farming systems, no account is taken of existing indigenous knowledge and conservation measures such as domestication of forest species. (This study) 5. Plant domestication as an indigenous management strategy is demand driven. (This study) 6. Essentially, the ambiguity in defining community-based resource management initiatives stems from the existing ambiguity in defining a community. (Cernea, 1990) 7. The debate on biodiversity conservation has fallen victim to crisis talk in conservation circles, an occupational hazard to which conservationists are as vulnerable as relief agency personnel. (Guyer & Richards, 1996) 8. When it comes to meeting user needs, research methods like fashion designs are often complementary rather than competing - mainly to the surprise of their initiators. (Personal experience) 9. Accepting stakeholder reconciliation as a give-and-take process, provides one of the most crucial parts on the "conservation jig-saw puzzle" in developing countries. (This study) 10. The term "forest reserve" can misleadingly carry the notion of "species richness". Some forest reserves are very poor in terms of species depending on the ecological conditions. (Personal experience) John F. Kessy Conservation and utilization of natural resources in the East Usambara forest reserves: conventional views and local perspectives February 23, 1998 Conservation and Utilization of Natural Resources in the East Usambara Forest Reserves: Conventional Views and Local Perspectives Promotoren: dr. P. Richards hoogleraar Technologie en agrarische ontwikkeling dr. ir. M. Wessel emeritus hoogleraar Tropische plantenteelt John Francis Kessy Conservation and Utilization of Natural Resources in the East Usambara Forest Reserves: Conventional Views and Local Perspectives Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor van de Landbouwuniversiteit Wageningen, op gezag van de rector magnificus dr. CM. Karssen, in het openbaar te verdedigen op maandag 23 februari 1998 des namiddags te 16.00 uur in de Aula Thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University ISBN 90-5485-809-5 Also published in the Tropical Resource Management Papers series No. 18; ISSN 0926-9495 Wageningen Agricultural University EI3L10THEEK lAî JDBOUWUNIVERSrr^f WAGENINGEN Cover design: Ernst van Cleef This book is dedicated to: My parents Francis Paul Leweri and Mary Ndekusara Mashina, that they tuned my youth in favour of education; My children, that they may be inspired to get highest levels of education in their life-time. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to the FAO/GEF Biodiversity Project in East africa for enabling me to pursue my PhD studies in The Netherlands through which I could produce this piece of work. Their financial support is highly appreciated. In particular I wish to thank Dr. Alan Rodgers who administered my fellowship from the very early days in collaboration with P. Kharas of The Fellowships Group, FAO Rome. My dream would not have become a reality had it not been for the continued guidance by my supervisors Prof. Paul Richards and Prof. Marius Wessel and my academic advisor Ir. Freerk Wiersum at Wageningen University . Their great academic strength, tireless support and constructive critics provided me with the inspiration I needed most. Not only did they care about my academic life, but my social life as well. I am indebted and most thankful to them. I also wish to thank Wiersum particularly for accepting to translate the summary of this work in Dutch. The accomplishment of this piece of work has been one of my long journeys in life. I wish to thank Dr. S. Maganga of the Faculty of Forestry, Sokoine University of Agriculture for encouraging me to take the first step in this journey by exposing to me the possibility of getting financial support from the FAO/GEF Project of which he was coordinating the Sokoine University component. By granting me the study leave and the permission to pursue my PhD studies, my employer, Sokoine University of Agriculture, made a remarkable contribution to this accomplishment. I wish to extend my gratitude to the Deputy Vice Chancellor for the study leave. Equally important was the willingliness of the Admission Board at Wageningen University for accepting my admission without prior requirement of an entry exam. I am grateful to the Admission Board. The Faculty of Forestry at Sokoine University of Agriculture was very supportive of my studies. In particular I wish to thank Prof. Chamshama, Prof. Ishengoma, Prof. Aku and Dr. Monela that their decisive academic and administrative positions at faculty level did not frustrate my research. I also received much cooperation from colleagues at Wageningen University, particularly in the Department of Forestry and the Working Group Technology and Agrarian Development. I wish to extend my appreciation to them all. Special thanks to Dinni, the secretary of the Working Group TAO for typing parts of this work. The opportunity I got to work with His Royal Highness Prince Bernard of The Netherlands as a short term advisor in a forestry project during my stay in Holland was a big encouragement in my career and I am grateful to His Royal Highness for the trust he had in me. Working with people like James Ramsay, Tony Cunningham and colleagues at the IUCN East African Regional Office during my fieldwork period in Tanzania gave me the opportunity to learn from and appreciate their experience and intellectual abilities. Their constant encouragement at difficult times in the field is highly appreciated. Having worked in the East Usambaras, Dr. Alan Hamilton (WWF) was a big inspiration in my work and his comments from the very early stages of my work were very beneficial in focusing my research. I wish to thank him for that. I received much support from the conservation and development projects operating in the East Usambaras particularly EUCFP and EUCADEP. I personally wish to thank Dr Stig, Mr. Kategula, Mr. Graham, Mr. Ningu and Mr. Mmasi for assisting me in their capacity as project administrators and personal friends. Although it is impossible to name all the other project staff here, their encouragement and friendly support meant a lot throughout the period that I spent in Tanga. I with to thank them very much. With the rainy and muddy conditions in the East Usambaras, my research assistants had to tolerate every situation for our common goal. May I extend my appreciation to Bruno Malya, Philip Mdoe, Mashauri, Phoibe Mrutu, Mwanavita Mbuguni and the cooperative teachers in Potwe, Kwamzindawa, Vuga and Hemsambia villages for working so hard as my assistants. I am glad none of them got hurt in the bumpy Suzuki. The contribution of my family to this accomplishment was enormous. I wish to thank my wife Angela for her patience and encouragement throughout the difficult times of the research. It is not possible to forget the way my children Blessing and Aika valued my work. Aika would now and then struggle to give me her pencil while Blessing would stop her from shouting while dad was working hard. This was a big motivation for me and I sincerely thank them. My parents, brothers and sisters constantly encouraged me to achieve what I had aimed at. I do not have the right words to thank them but let me say Papa, Mama Mashina, Marie, Devo, Mariti, Terhe, Anyesi, Katari, Sara na Edi aikenyi kishari. My social life in Holland would have been a nightmare had it not been for my good hearted friends. I particularly extend my appreciation to Washington Gichengo and his wife Saskia Fokkema, Mr Ino and Ms Marjo Buitelaar for accepting me and my family as their great friends, facilitating our integration into Dutch society. The assistance given to me by Marjo in sorting out species using the Flora of East Africa and the Kewensis database in the Plant taxonomy department will never be forgotten. I am grateful to Mr. Hugo and his girlfriend Erna in a very sincere way. It was Mr Hugo who offered me "gratis accomodatie" during my family's short visit in Holland. Being a computer wizard Hugo's response to my computer related questions was very beneficial to me. My children will always remember the happy moments they shared with Mr & Mrs Fokkema and Erna's Parents during their short visit in Holland. I wish to thank them for that. Angela will live to remember the sisterly care she received from Prof. Richards' wife Esther, while Blessing and Aika cherish the happy moments they shared with Gladys and Mayiatta. For all our friends in Holland we wish to meet you one day somewhere in Africa south of the Sahara, preferably Tanzania. You are most welcome. In a long journey like this one you meet many people who are supportive and very helpful in making your dreams come true. Although it is practically impossible to name them all in these two pages of my book, I sincerely appreciate the support. Despite the fact that many people have contributed in different ways to the final shape of this work the responsibility lies in my hands. TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements Table of contents CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 The African environment 3 1.2 The Tanzanian situation 6 1.3 Contributing factors to the environmental situation in Tanzania 6 1.3.1 Growing population and unpredictable climate 6 1.3.2 Political economy 8 1.3.3 The agricultural economy 10 1.3.4 Land tenure 10 1.3.4.1 Evolution of land tenure in Tanzania 10 1.3.4.2 Existing tenure and its impacts on resource management 11 1.4 Summary 12 CHAPTER 2: ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS IN THE EAST USAMBARAS.