Alison Goddard Elliott The Myth of the Hero: Classical and Medieval Epic A Report on a Conference N OCTOBER 26 AND 27, 1978, the Medieval Studies Group of Brown OUniversity, in conjunction with Classics and Comparative Literature, held a conference on "The Myth of the Hero." The conference consisted of introductory remarks by Albert Cook, two guest lectures (by Gregory Nagy of Harvard University, and Joseph J. Duggan of the University of California, Berkeley), and nine fifteen-minute talks by members of the Brown faculty. Given the broad subject area covered by the conference, the following summaries of papers presented may be of interest to readers of Olifant. Six of the abstracts are (with minor alterations) authorial: those by Bossy, Elliott, Nagy, Nash, Mathiesen, and Segal. The others were prepared by A.G.E. and approved by the authors. The opening address by Professor Cook was devoted to "Some Thoughts on How to Discuss Epic Poetry." After reflections, more philosophical than philological, on the formula and its relation to metaphor, the speaker turned to epic content, stressing, however, the omnipresent continuum between form and content: the actions of the hero that the poem describes correspond to type, as do the phrases of the poem and the kind of address in which it is cast. Cook then reviewed various characterizations of the hero (with reference, inter alia, to the works of Lord, Finnegan, Aarne-Thompson, Lord Raglan, and Dumézil). But the subject tends to spread into adjacent domains. A study of epic illustrates in a secondary way how comprehensive, how fertile in connections with the society it depicts, a heroic poem may be. This broadness may be taken to sponsor the two further questions Cook raised: (1) How do erotic motives and developments govern the epic poem? Dumézil had found that three functions—the ruling-priestly, the warring, and the commercial-agricultural—underly the Indo-European societies for whom our most elaborate evidence tends to be the epic poem. These functions are all busy ones—of peace and war; epics, moreover, do center on military action. Nevertheless many epic poems contain the erotic motif in some deep, if tangential, manner. 235 236 Olifant / Volume 7, No. 3 / Spring 1980 (2) Is the epic simply "a long poem" then? This second question implies the further question of the persistent philosophical component of epic poetry. Hesiod is a contemporary or even a predecessor of Homer; he begins one of his inquiries by mounting a definition of truth in a powerful tripartite form that has considerable generalizing power, as Piero Pucci has shown. A systematic mythology, a systematic anthropology, and a systematic guide for the conduct of social interaction and agriculture are all to be found in him, at least incipiently. There is much that amounts to philosophy in the Mahabharata, and the Poetic Edda leans heavily on the powers inherent in wisdom. Extending this strain into more sophisticated times would allow us to include the poems of Ovid and Dante among the "philosophical" epics, to say nothing of Blake's prophetic books. The observation that the "truth" poets present theories about the force of love closes the circle, to join Cook's first question with his second. Finally, then, it will not do simply to define the epic hero in a circular fashion as the military hero. "The long poem" may well be the more adequate category since we find military heroes more purely in ballads, in byliny, and in short epics like the Lay of Igor's Campaign. Since all long poems present amalgams, we could simply say that a military campaign may serve as one organizing principle for the amalgam. We have either left the epic hero, or we have extended him. In the discussion of Cook's paper, three points were brought out: (1) A poem, in fact, becomes epic when it allows for the intrusion of the erotic and the philosophical. (2) There is a large rhetorical cluster of poetry to which the epic belongs. (3) We should ask what is the ultimate message, not the code. In An Anatomy of Criticism, Frye was not interested in the message; we should be. Subsequent papers at this conference dealt with three major topics, the first of which was devoted to archetypes of the epic hero: Do they exist? What determines them? In "A Medieval Literature Almost Without Heroes," Robert Mathiesen examined the literature of Orthodox Slavs. If by "hero" we understand a person having "superhuman virtue, a heroic and divine kind of nature" (Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, VII, 1), who thereby enjoys a great advantage over mankind in general in his body and mind (Aristotle, Politics, VII, 14), then medieval Slavonic literature rarely depicts heroic individuals, and it never depicts them as a type. Elliott / "Myth of the Hero" Conference 237 Such an absence cannot be due to ignorance of heroes: the folklore, or preliterate verbal art, of the Slavs in question is replete with heroes, and indeed with oral epic poetry. The oral tradition knows even a technical term for the hero as a type; in Slavonic, however, there is no standard term which might correspond to hērōs in Greek or Latin, although much of Slavonic literature comprises translations, mostly from Greek. Instead there are other, more interesting reasons for the absence of the hero as a literary type. (1) The Orthodox concept of a saint differs from the Catholic with respect to heroism. In the two Orthodox cultures (Greek and Slavonic), unlike the Latin Catholic culture, the saint is not so much a hero of the Christian faith as a miracle-worker or intercessor. (2) The structure of medieval Slavonic literature differs from those of medieval Latin and Greek literatures because it did not inherit the system of genres of Classical Antiquity (which continued to support the hero as a literary type in medieval Latin and Greek). One can even identify an anti-heroic tendency in medieval Slavonic literature: several of the canonized Slavic saints were competent soldiers who refused to fight and thus suffered death without offering resistance. Moreover, the work which most closely approaches the pattern of Greek or Latin epic, the Oration on Prince Igor's Campaign, has as its protagonist a warrior whose campaign brought not only him, but all Russia to grief. One can argue that the author of this Oration, while praising Prince Igor (probably to his face), subtly condemns the passion for honor and the exercise of military valor in the pursuit of honor which brought Prince Igor to this pass. In a paper devoted to "Youthful Age Paradigms in the Iliad," Laura L. Nash studied the way the paradigm of the youthful hero may shape the narrative of the Iliad, especially in the treatment of Achilles. Youthful heroes are technically minor characters in the Iliad, where the mature warrior bears the brunt of war, but their presence provides an essential sounding board for the heroic code and age-related social functions. Frequently paired with the old, the young hero's impulsive but brave response to war stems from an immaturity of judgement which must be tempered by the experienced, strategic counseling of the older warrior (on a pattern similar to the Near Eastern Wisdom literature). Frequently, however, the impetuosity of the youthful hero prevails and results in his death. 238 Olifant / Volume 7, No. 3 / Spring 1980 While death is common coinage in the Iliad, the death of the young is perceived as especially poignant, and the strictness of age character- ization combines with the special pathos of this particular instance to provide a vivid and commonly understood motif expressing profoundest grief. Nash cited four examples from the Iliad: (1) Patroclus dies "leaving behind manliness and youth (hēbēn)," despite the fact that he is a grown man (16.855ff.). (2) Although Achilles is younger than Patroclus, his grief is compared to that of a father mourning a son who died on his wedding day (i.e., a youth) (23. 222ff.). (3) The vignette of young Harpalion's death is capped by the image of his father sorrowfully following the funeral bier back to Troy. Here pathos is at its fullest, even to the disruption of plot: the father, Pylaemenes, had died 100 lines earlier (13. 643ff.). (4) Andromache's lament for Hector, "Husband (aner), you perish a youth (neos)" is hardly metaphorical. Rather, figurative time of life is transformed into reality by the extreme distress of grief (24. 724ff.). The equation of untimely death with the death of the young man indeed explains the ambiguities of Achilles' age, for his heroism is in constant anticipation of his untimely death and transforms the perception of his entire career at Troy into that of a young man. Three papers dealt with the morphology of the hero and the narrative grammar of epic. In "A Space Odyssey: From Ithaca to Kiev," Patricia Arant compared the Russian oral epic Dobrynja to the adventures of Odysseus and Telemachus in the Odyssey. The Russian work is primarily concerned with the unexpected return of the hero after a long absence from home, just as his wife is to marry another. Such "return songs" are among the most popular verse narratives in the Russian oral tradition. Numerous narrative details in the account of Dobrynja closely parallel the adventures first of Telemachus, then of Odysseus. It is not a question of direct influence. Such similarities suggest inherent peculiarities of oral traditional literature, even though we cannot explain conclusively why the place of the thematic material, within narratives that share similar story patterns, tends to be inviolate even over a period of thousands of years, regardless of how this material functions within its own narrative.