“DRESSED IN BLACK”: THE SHANGRI-LAS AND THEIR RECORDED LEGACY Lisa Annette MacKinney (B.A. Hons., M.A.) This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Western Australia School of Humanities Discipline of History 2012 ABSTRACT This thesis is the first ever full-length study of the Shangri-Las, a female teenage pop group from Cambria Heights in Queens, New York. Sisters Mary and Betty Weiss, and twins Mary Ann and Marguerite Ganser formed the group while attending school together in the early 1960s, and are most famous for their single “Leader of the Pack.” Despite enjoying an enduring following among rock fans and musicians, the Shangri-Las have been trivialised in a variety of important and lastingly influential ways by mainstream rock criticism, which is the context in which the bulk of commentary on the group has been published. This study examines the reasons for and manners in which this has received expression, which are complex, interconnected, and not always immediately obvious. As very young women, the Shangri-Las had relatively little agency within a male- dominated recording industry that perceived teenagers as fodder for manipulation and exploitation. Typically, this has been used as an excuse to devalue the musical input of the group members, and marginalise their recordings within a canon of perceived ‘authentic’ rock music. This thesis argues for a substantial rethinking and acknowledgment of the Shangri- Las’ considerable abilities, talent and musicality, and the centrality of their performances to the Shangri-Las’ largely unacknowledged artistic achievement. This thesis is divided into three sections. Part One examines the critical reception of the Shangri-Las, which has been dominated by their rigid inclusion within an anachronistic ‘genre’ known as ‘girl groups.’ I unpack the origins of this terminology, and demonstrate that it was not in use as a term denoting a specific genre (as it is currently understood) until the early 1970s, when it gained currency among rock journalists in conjunction with particularly problematic understandings of the place of girls and women in rock music. This has had significant implications for the young performers categorised in this gendered manner, but particularly for the Shangri-Las. 2 Part Two consists of Chapters Two, Three and Four, and is an historical examination of the group as a functioning entity. In Chapter Two, I look at the post-WWII development of Queens, and particularly Cambria Heights, the neighbourhood in which the Weiss and Ganser sisters grew up and formed their singing group. Chapter Three examines the circumstances and personnel involved in the formation of the Red Bird record label, and the events leading up to the signing of the Shangri-Las. The early months of the Shangri-Las as a famous, touring group are detailed in the context of exploitative and largely unregulated music industry practices, sometimes involving mafia figures. These would eventually lead to the collapse of the Red Bird label, an event from which the Shangri-Las never recovered. This resulted in an ill-fated move to the Mercury label, and the eventual demise of the group for reasons largely beyond their control is examined in Chapter Four. This is followed by a short postlude. Part Three consists of Chapters Five, Six and Seven, in which key recordings by the Shangri-Las are examined thematically. In Chapter Five, I look at “Leader of the Pack” in the context of motorcycle culture, its ties to various forms of juvenile delinquency, and the manner in which societal norms are reflected and subverted. “Remember (Walkin’ in the Sand)” and “Past, Present and Future” have strong ties to the nineteenth- century European Romantic tradition, and both are examined in detail in Chapter Six. Chapter Seven examines the final recordings made by the Shangri-Las: two singles which are generally perceived to be failures; nevertheless, they constitute a telling window into the professional decline of the group. This chapter also contributes to a re-reading of the notion of ‘the sixties’ as an era characterised by unanimous youth protest, particularly against American involvement in the Vietnam War. My examination of the Shangri-Las locates the group and their recordings within a wider and more informed historical, artistic and musical context than those within which the group is routinely considered. This provides a new framework through which to understand the significance of the 3 Shangri-Las and their recordings, resulting in a complete overhaul of their perceived musical and artistic achievement, and their place in the narratives of popular music. 4 CONTENTS Acknowledgments 6 Introduction 9 PART ONE 1 Genre and Gender: The Shangri-Las and ‘Girl Group’ Mythology 23 PART TWO 2 Queens, Doo Wop, and Two Pairs of Sisters 60 3 The Shangri-Las, George ‘Shadow’ Morton, and Red Bird Records 95 4 The Demise of the Red Bird Label, the Mob, and Mercury Records 139 POSTLUDE Aftermath 178 PART THREE 5 ‘Hmmm, he’s good-bad, but he’s not evil...’: “Leader of the Pack,” ‘Shadowy’ Guys, and Rebellion 196 6 The Shangri-Las, Romanticism and the Western Artistic Tradition: “Remember (Walkin’ in the Sand)” and “Past, Present and Future” 236 7 The Four Last Songs 265 Conclusion 301 Bibliography 307 5 AKNOWLEDGMENTS I have amassed enormous debts to many people throughout the completion of this thesis. I thank the Department of History at the University of Western Australia (UWA) for its support of this project, and I am particularly grateful for the various grants and scholarships I have received. These enabled me to travel to New York City to carry out research, and also enabled the completion of this thesis in more practical ways. I thank the Fragmented Families project for being so gracious about my departure from their working group and my earlier Ph.D. in order to pursue this obsession with the Shangri-Las. I also thank my supervisors, Charlie Fox and Ethan Blue, for their valuable suggestions for and guidance of this project. I am particularly grateful also to Rob Stuart for his understanding and support throughout my candidature. I wish to thank the staff at the Reid Library, Scholars’ Centre and Music Library for their support, both as a client and a work colleague. To the UWA Inter-Library Loan service, particularly Anne Lim and Michelle Coles, I extend my thanks for their tireless efforts in tracking down my requests. A thesis of this nature would simply be impossible to complete from Australia otherwise. I also sincerely thank the postgraduate community at UWA whose friendship, care and enthusiasm has sustained me in various important ways while attempting to complete a Ph.D. thousands of miles from home. Joanne McEwan, Kate Riley and Andrew Broertjes have all at different times offered me accommodation, meals and other forms of support, as well as listening patiently to my rants on a variety of bothersome topics. I am particularly grateful to Andrew for speedily reading and commenting on chapter drafts in the last few months. I am extremely grateful to Margaret and James Dorey (and their puppy dogs), for opening their house, hearts and kitchen to me at several crucial 6 times in the last few years. This generosity and understanding has been absolutely integral to enabling me to cope with the destabilising effects of several years as a professional house-sitter. I really cannot thank them enough. I would also like to extend my thanks to Richard Koss, Emma Brady and Pierre de Gaillande, who generously helped me out with accommodation in New York City. I extend special thanks and gratitude to Helena Piirto. Very special thanks are due Phil Milstein, of Braintree MA, who has assisted me for the last five years with source material, contacts, and his impossibly intricate knowledge of musical minutiae. His support, friendship and enthusiasm for this project, as well as his generosity in sharing his accumulated research materials, including recordings of interviews, has played a central role in making this project possible. I sincerely thank Cat Hope, who has been a great friend and support, both musically and intellectually. Monica Syrette, a fellow music fan and Shangri-Las obsessive, has been an unwavering and enthusiastic believer in this project, and a deeply appreciated friend. I am privileged to count fellow La Trobe University alumni Emily Booth, Susan Aykut, Corinne Manning and my former M.A. supervisor Judith Richards, among my friends and colleagues. All are excellent historians, and great and dear friends. I would also like to thank Adam Spellicy, Laila Marie Costa, Jan Woodcock, Mandy Gordon, and Melanie Ostell. I especially thank Michael Munson, who remained supportive after the ending of our relationship five years ago. He remains a very dear and trusted friend whose belief in this project has never faltered. I must especially thank Juliet John, who has also been a tremendous support and an incredibly generous friend and host during the final stages of completion. 7 I would like also to thank my parents for various forms of support, and for putting up with a daughter who I strongly suspect they are still somewhat bewildered by. I am especially grateful to my sister Lyn and her family for their unstinting generosity and love. Special thanks also are due to Stina and Jasper Thomas for being kind, generous, supportive and caring housemates during 2010. It has made an enormous difference during an extremely stressful time, and I am tremendously grateful. The piano sonatas of Ludwig van Beethoven and the Lieder of Richard Strauss sustained and calmed me through endless late nights and hours alone at the computer. This study is dedicated, with great affection, thanks, and sadness, to Rhys Llewellyn Isaac (1937–2010).