DISSERTATION Titel der Dissertation Migrating Into Tourist Business. Agency and Embeddedness of Ethnic Minority Street Vendors in Thailand Verfasser Mag. Alexander Trupp angestrebter akademischer Grad Doktor der Philosophie (Dr. phil.) Wien, 2014 Studienkennzahl lt. Studienblatt: A 092 453 Dissertationsgebiet lt. Studienblatt: Theoret. / Angewandte Geographie Betreuerin / Betreuer: Ao. Univ-Prof. Mag. Dr. Karl Husa CONTENTS 1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 9 1.1 Motivation and Rationale ................................................................................... 9 1.2 Research Objectives .......................................................................................... 12 1.3 Research Questions and Methods .................................................................... 17 1.4 Structure of the Study ....................................................................................... 19 2 State of the Art and Conceptual Foundations ................................................... 25 2.1 Ethnic Minority Entrepreneurs, Street Vending and Informality ..................... 26 2.1.1 Ethnic Minority Entrepreneurs ................................................................. 27 2.1.2 Self-Employment and Informality ............................................................ 28 2.1.3 Street Vending .......................................................................................... 30 2.1.4 Souvenirs .................................................................................................. 32 2.2 Social Structures and Embeddedness ............................................................... 33 2.2.1 Networks and Social Capital ..................................................................... 34 2.2.2 Types of Social Relations and Social Capital ............................................. 36 2.2.3 Sources of Social Capital ........................................................................... 40 2.2.4 The Negative Side of Social Capital .......................................................... 41 2.2.5 Limitations and Appraisal ......................................................................... 42 2.3 Mixed Approaches of Embeddedness .............................................................. 43 2.3.1 The Interactive Model ………………………………………………………………………….43 2.3.1.1 Opportunity Structures ......................................................................... 43 2.3.1.2 Group Characteristics ........................................................................... 45 2.3.1.3 Ethnic Strategies ................................................................................... 47 2.3.1.4 Limitations and Appraisal ..................................................................... 48 2.3.2 Mixed Embeddedness .............................................................................. 49 2.3.2.1 Economic and Politico-Institutional Conditions ................................... 51 2.3.2.2 Limitations and Appraisal ..................................................................... 53 2.4 (Other) Forms of Capital ........................................................................... 54 2.5 Habitus and Agency .................................................................................. 57 2.6 Gender ...................................................................................................... 60 2.7 Mobility and Multilocality ........................................................................ 62 2.7.1 Mobility as Practice .................................................................................. 64 2.7.2 Mobilities Beyond the International Bias: Rural-Urban Migration .......... 64 2.7.3 Multilocality and Translocality ................................................................. 67 2.8 Interim Conclusion on Sensitizing Concepts ..................................................... 69 3 Research Approach: Design and Methodology ................................................. 73 3.1 Grounded Theory .............................................................................................. 73 3.2 Abductive Reasoning ........................................................................................ 76 3.3 Mediating Structure and Agency ...................................................................... 78 3.4 Research Methods ............................................................................................ 81 3.4.1 Multi-Sited Fieldwork ............................................................................... 81 3.4.2 Entering the Field and Fieldwork Reflections ........................................... 83 3.5 Data Collection .................................................................................................. 89 3.5.1 Personal Network Analysis ....................................................................... 90 3.5.2 Interviews ................................................................................................. 91 3.5.3 Participant Observation and Informal Conversations .............................. 93 3.5.4 Use of Photography .................................................................................. 95 3.6 Qualitative Data Analysis .................................................................................. 97 3.6.1 Theoretical Sensitivity and Tools for Interpreting Qualitative Data……….99 3.6.2 Memos and Diagrams ............................................................................. 103 3.6.3 Different Levels of Coding and Analysis ................................................. 104 3.6.3.1 Developing Concepts and Categories… .............................................. 105 3.6.3.2 Further Developing and Relating Concepts/Categories ..................... 107 3.6.3.3 Theoretical Integration ....................................................................... 110 3.6.4 Theoretical Sampling and Saturation ..................................................... 111 3.7 Remarks on Structure and Illustration of Empirical Results ........................... 113 4 The Thai Context: Internal Migration and Ethnic Minorities ............................ 117 4.1 Internal Migration ........................................................................................... 117 4.2 Ethnic Minorities and ‘Hilltribes’ .................................................................... 119 4.2.1 The Making of a “Hilltribe Problem” ...................................................... 121 4.3 The Akha ......................................................................................................... 127 4.3.1 Akhazang and Gender Roles ................................................................... 129 4.3.2 Akha Urban Migration ............................................................................ 132 5 The Evolvement of Urban Akha Souvenir Businesses Over Time and Space ..... 135 5.1 From Hillside to Roadside ............................................................................... 135 5.2 Moving on to Bangkok .................................................................................... 144 5.3 Moving Beachside ........................................................................................... 146 5.4 The Development of Akha Souvenir Products ................................................ 154 5.5 Interim Conclusion .......................................................................................... 158 6 Differences Within: Structure and Distinction of the Souvenir Businesses ....... 161 6.1 Types of Migrants and Migration ................................................................... 161 6.2 Types of Sellers/Entrepreneurs ...................................................................... 166 6.2.1 Basic Socio-Demographic Overview ....................................................... 167 6.2.2 Vending Styles ........................................................................................ 167 6.3 Gendered Practices ......................................................................................... 172 7 Social Dimensions of Economic Action ........................................................... 179 7.1 Social Networks I: Mobilizing Insider Relations .............................................. 179 7.1.1 Ethnic Homogeneity and Intra-Akha Relations ...................................... 180 7.1.2 Foundations and Outcome of Internal Social Capital ............................. 183 7.1.3 Foundations and Outcome of Value-Based Social Capital ..................... 186 7.1.4 Social Capital on the Community Level .................................................. 189 7.1.5 Negative Social Capital, Weak Insider Relations and Conflicts .............. 191 7.2 Social networks II: Mobilizing Outsider Relations .......................................... 194 7.2.1 Akha – Farang Relations ......................................................................... 195 7.2.2 Akha – Thai Relations ............................................................................. 199 7.2.3 Akha – Other Minorities Relations ......................................................... 204 7.3 Detaching Oneself: Quests for Independence ................................................ 207 8 Economic and Political Structures .................................................................. 209 8.1 Economic Structures and Market Conditions