NEGOTIATING POST-CONFLICT COMMUNICATION: A CASE OF ETHNIC CONFLICT IN INDONESIA A dissertation presented to the faculty of the Scripps College of Communication of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Rudi Sukandar June 2007 This dissertation entitled NEGOTIATING POST-CONFLICT COMMUNICATION: A CASE OF ETHNIC CONFLICT IN INDONESIA by RUDI SUKANDAR has been approved for the School of Communication Studies and the Scripps College of Communication by __________________________________________________ Claudia L. Hale Professor of Communication Studies __________________________________________________ Gregory J. Shepherd Dean, Scripps College of Communication Abstract SUKANDAR, RUDI, Ph.D., June 2007, Communication Studies NEGOTIATING POST-CONFLICT COMMUNICATION: A CASE OF ETHNIC CONFLICT IN INDONESIA (260 pp.) Director of Dissertation: Claudia L. Hale This research studied the dynamics of post-conflict communication between Dayak and Madurese ethnic groups in Central Kalimantan Province, Indonesia after the violent conflict in 2001. This research uncovered four key issues—identity, roles of women during and after conflict, post-conflict communication, and post-conflict problems—which played significant roles in the post-conflict interaction between members of both groups. This research employed qualitative methods via an interpretative approach. The data were collected through observations, interviews, and document analysis in Sampit, Pangkalan Bun, and Palangka Raya, three major cities in the province. The results of the research showed a change in self-perception due to the conflict. The Madurese, as the losing party, tended to undermine their ethnic identity while the Dayaks, as the victors, regained their ethnic identity with pride. Cases of identity detachment or distancing are identified as one group embraced a geographical or religious identity while the other evinced greater willingness to embrace an ethnic identity. Despite many identities that were embraced, members of both ethnic groups committed the act of reductionism and simplification in perceiving the others’ identity, resulting in unchanged perception toward the members of other ethnic groups. Women from Dayak and Madurese ethnic groups also participated during and after conflict. The roles they played include women as victims, women as combatants, and women as peace activists. A new role identified in this study is women as informal leaders during conflict. Members of both ethnic groups created a social distance toward each other in post-conflict interaction. The Madurese tended to apply the obliging strategy in their interaction while the Dayaks tend to apply domination strategy. Power differences between these two groups created an imbalanced negotiation process, forcing the Madurese to accept conditions established by the Dayaks. Similarities between the two groups did not materialize to become forces of unity as differences were more highlighted. Post-conflict problems include unchanged perception toward others, unemployment and government budget drain, asset take-over, communication problems, Dayaks’ reluctance to accept the returnees, and alleged aggressive Christian evangelism. As the conflict was not resolved and problems were not addressed, Central Kalimantan is still susceptible to future conflict, which might take the form of interethnic or religious conflict. Approved: ______________________________________________________________ Claudia L. Hale Professor of Communication Studies To Erda: Thank you for waiting and letting it survive. Acknowledgments Praise be to God, the Almighty, for the completion of this dissertation. First, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my adviser Dr. Claudia L. Hale. Without her valuable knowledge, patience, and guidance, this dissertation would not have been finished. My gratitude also goes to my dissertation committee: Dr. Devika Chawla, Dr. Elizabeth F. Collins, and Dr. Lynn M. Harter for their input and help in shaping this dissertation. In Sampit, I would like to thank Abdul Haris and Muhammad Ansyari for transportation and accommodation and Muslih for the assistance. In Pangkalan Bun, I would like to thank Ustad Burhanuddin and Tata Riyani for assisting my research. In Banjarmasin, I must thank Ida Rusdiana and Muhammad Mahjuri and my interview transcribers (Millynda Prahmarika, Isninah, Zainawati, Faridatul Ahyani, Rachmi Mahdalena, Natalis, Arai Dieni, and Husna) for their help. I would also like to thank Ayahanda Sukarni, Mama Bandiah, and Mama Nurhani for their prayers, my wife Erda Handayani for her patience, and Endang, Jati, Ina, and Vivi for their support. Finally, I would like to thank all of my respondents and everyone who assisted me during my research in Central Kalimantan. vii Table of Contents Page Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………. iii Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………….… vi Chapter 1: Problem Statement ……………………………………………………….. 1 Introduction: Living Among the Madurese and Local People in Sampit ………………………………………………………….. 1 Me and the Dayak-Madurese Conflict …………………………………… 7 Formulation of the Problem ……………………………………………… 11 Purpose of Study …………………………………………………………. 11 Definition of Terms ……………………………………………………… 12 Summary ………………………………………………………………… 14 Chapter 2: A Historical Review of Violent Conflict in Central Kalimantan ………… 16 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 16 Violence in Indonesia: An Overview …………………………………….. 16 Historical Perspective ……………………………………………. 16 Identity Perspective ………………………………………………. 25 Dayak-Madurese Violent Conflict in Central Kalimantan ……………….. 29 Dayak and Borneo: People and Their Resourceful Land ………… 29 History of Madurese Migration to Kalimantan …………………... 32 The Dayaks and Their Culture of Violence (Headhunting) ……….. 33 The Madurese and Their Culture of Violence (Carok) ……………. 37 Dayak-Madurese Conflict: A Brief History ………………………. 40 Peace Negotiating Process ………………………………………………… 43 Conventions for Conflict Resolution ………………………………. 43 Issues of Refugee Return ………………………………………….. 46 Summary and Conclusion …………………………………………………. 48 Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework …………………………………………………… 50 Introduction ……………………………………………………………….. 50 Identity and Social Identity ……………………………………………….. 50 Ethnicity …………………………………………………………………… 53 Interethnic Relationships and Conflict Emergence ……………………….. 57 Women’s Role During and After Conflict ……………………………….. 60 Women as Victims …………………………………………………. 61 Women as Combatants ……………………………………………. 61 viii Women as Peace Activists ………………………………………… 65 Post-conflict Reconstruction ……………………………………………… 67 Research Questions ……………………………………………………….. 73 Summary and Conclusion …………………………………………………. 73 Chapter 4: Methods …………………………………………………………………. 75 Introduction ……………………………………………………………… 75 Rationale for Choosing Qualitative Method and Interpretive Approach ………………………………………………………… 75 Preliminary Study ……………………………………………………….. 79 Situating the Identity and Self: An “Outsider Within” Perspective …….. 81 Reentering the Field …………………………………………………….. 85 Data Collection Methods ………………………………………………… 89 Participant Observation …………………………………………. 89 Interview …………………………………………………………. 92 Document Collection …………………………………………….. 101 Data Analysis …………………………………………………………….. 102 Summary and Conclusion ………………………………………………… 106 Chapter 5: Research Findings ……...………………………………………………… 107 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 107 Observation ………………………………………………………………. 107 Demographic Change ………………………………………………….…. 112 Identity …………………………………………………………………… 113 Being a Madurese ………………………………………………… 114 Being a Dayak or a Native ……………………………………….. 118 Being Muslim, Christian, Kaharingan, and Indonesian…………... 130 The Role of Women During and After Conflict ………………………… 134 Nuraidah: A Warrior Wife ………………………………………... 135 Tari: A Brave Minister …………………………………………… 139 Madurese Women: Ambassadors of Peace ………………………... 143 Post-conflict Reconstruction .…………………………………………….. 147 Return of the Refugees and Local People’s Responses …………… 147 The Fate of Dayak Warriors ……………………………………… 151 The Fate of Madurese Organization IKAMA After Conflict ……… 152 The Role of NGOs and Civil Society’s Movement ………………… 155 Impacts of Conflict: Change in Behaviors and Interaction ……… 158 The Conflict Monument …………………………………………… 164 The Kaharingan Belief: Its Unexpected Rise and Role …………… 166 Post-conflict Remaining Problems ………………………………………... 168 Perception …………………………………………………………. 168 Unemployment and Government Budget Drain …………………… 169 ix Asset Take-over ……………………………………………………. 171 Interpersonal and Interethnic Problems …………………………... 172 Locals’ Reluctant Acceptance to the Madurese Returnees ………... 175 Issue of Aggressive Evangelism …………………………………… 176 Summary and Conclusion ………………………………………………… 177 Chapter 6: Analysis …………………………………………………………………… 181 Identity ……………………………………………………………………. 181 The Role of Women During and After Conflict ….……………………… 188 Post-conflict Reconstruction .…………………………………………….. 191 Post-conflict Remaining Problems ……………………………….............. 196 Summary and Conclusion ………………………………………………… 203 Chapter 7: Conclusion ………………………………………………………………… 208 Introduction ……………………………………………………………….. 208 Contributions and Strengths of This Research ……………………………..208 Limitations of the Research ………………………………………………. 212 Directions for Future Research …………………………………………… 214 Recommendations ………………………………………………………… 215 References ……………………………………………………………………………. 220 Appendix A: Map of Indonesia ………………………………………………………. 242 Appendix B: Map of Central Kalimantan