CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by University of Birmingham Research Archive, E-theses Repository UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM SCHOOL OF EDUCATION VISUAL IMPAIRMENT CENTRE FOR TEACHING AND RESEARCH E-LEARNING AND BLINDNESS: EVALUATING THE QUALITY OF THE LEARNING EXPERIENCE TO INFORM POLICY AND PRACTICE BY SHIRLEY B. EVANS SUBMITTED AS FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 2009 THESIS SUPERVISOR, DR. GRAEME DOUGLAS University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT The thesis focuses upon the use of e-learning by learners who are blind. Specifically, the research examined whether they could access and engage in e-learning and, if so, was this on the same basis and of the same quality as sighted learners? The thesis describes the development of a conceptual framework which distinguished between the activities of ‘accessing’, ‘using’ and ‘doing’ when engaging in e-learning. The framework was combined with cognitive load theory as the underpinning theoretical framework and used as a method of describing and understanding the quality of the learning experience. In the main study it was found that the two groups of learners did have a similar learning experience although it took the learners who were blind approximately twice as long to complete the task as the sighted learners. It is argued that while learners who are blind can 'access' e-learning material, even if it is designed carefully there may be a danger of excluding them from the learning experience. The thesis concludes by linking the findings to legislation in terms of specialist skills for supporting learners who are blind, accessibility and usability of e- learning materials, and funding and availability of specialist education and technology. Key Words: blindness, e-learning, accessibility, cognitive load theory i TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES.............................................................................................vi LIST OF TABLES ..............................................................................................vii PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................... viii CHAPTER 1 ....................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................ 1 Aims of the Research ..................................................................................... 2 Related Research ........................................................................................... 3 Definition of Terms.......................................................................................... 4 Ethical Issues................................................................................................ 10 Outline of the Thesis..................................................................................... 10 Conclusion.................................................................................................... 14 CHAPTER 2 ..................................................................................................... 16 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE...................................................................... 16 Introduction................................................................................................... 16 The Context of Education and Training for Adult Learners in the United Kingdom........................................................................................................ 18 Education and Training Opportunities for People who are Blind................... 29 E-learning ..................................................................................................... 39 E-learning and Accessibility.......................................................................... 54 ICT and Blindness ........................................................................................ 69 Conclusion.................................................................................................... 84 CHAPTER 3 ..................................................................................................... 85 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................. 85 Introduction and Overview ............................................................................ 85 Ethical Issues................................................................................................ 88 Initial Approaches ......................................................................................... 91 Exploratory Studies....................................................................................... 97 Exploratory Study 1 ...................................................................................... 97 Exploratory Study 2 ...................................................................................... 98 Pilot Approach .............................................................................................. 99 Conclusion.................................................................................................. 105 ii CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................... 107 EXPLORATORY STUDIES 1 and 2 ............................................................... 107 Introduction................................................................................................. 107 Exploratory Study 1 .................................................................................... 108 The Scale and Scope of Exploratory Study 1 ............................................. 108 Method........................................................................................................ 109 Results........................................................................................................ 111 Virtual Learning Environments.................................................................... 112 Analysis ...................................................................................................... 114 Implications for the Next Stage of the Research......................................... 115 Interim Conclusion ...................................................................................... 116 Exploratory Study 2 .................................................................................... 117 Introduction................................................................................................. 117 The Scale and Scope of Exploratory Study 2 ............................................. 117 Method........................................................................................................ 120 Results and Analysis .................................................................................. 121 Conclusion.................................................................................................. 127 CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................... 130 PILOT STUDY................................................................................................ 130 Summary .................................................................................................... 130 Introduction................................................................................................. 130 The Scale and Scope of the Pilot Study ..................................................... 132 Method........................................................................................................ 133 Method........................................................................................................ 136 Results and Analysis .................................................................................. 137 Videotape Analysis ..................................................................................... 140 Conclusion.................................................................................................. 146 CHAPTER 6 ................................................................................................... 149 LITERATURE AND METHODOLOGY REVISITED ....................................... 149 Introduction and Overview .......................................................................... 149 Reflections upon the Pilot Study and the Implications for the Main Study .. 150 Cognitive Load Theory................................................................................ 153 Conclusion.................................................................................................. 163 CHAPTER 7 ................................................................................................... 166 iii MAIN STUDY DESIGN AND METHOD ......................................................... 166 Introduction................................................................................................