THE ROUTLEDGE COMPANION TO FASCISM AND THE FAR RIGHT The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right is an engaging and accessible guide to the origins of fascism, the main facets of far-right ideology, and the reality of fascist and far-right government around the world. In a clear and concise manner, this book illustrates the main features of the subject using chronologies, maps, glossaries and biographies of key individuals. As well as the key examples of Hitler’s Germany and Mussolini’s Italy, this book also draws on extreme right-wing movements and regimes in Latin America, East- ern Europe and the Far East. In a series of original essays, the authors explore the following aspects of fascism and the far right: . Roots and origins . Ideology . Attitudes to nation and race . Social policy . Economic thinking . Diplomacy and foreign policy . The practice of politics in government and opposition. Peter Davies is Senior Lecturer in European History at the University of Huddersfield. His books include The National Front in France (1999), France and the Second World War (2001) and The Extreme Right in France (2002). Derek Lynch is Senior Lecturer in Politics at the University of Huddersfield. He is currently working on a book on radio broadcasting and propaganda in the twentieth century. Routledge Companions Routledge Companions are the perfect reference guides, providing everything the student or general reader needs to know. Authoritative and accessible, they combine the in-depth expertise of leading specialists with straightforward, jargon-free writing. In each book you’ll find what you’re looking for, clearly presented – whether through an extended article or an A–Z entry – in ways which the beginner can understand and even the expert will appreciate. Routledge Companion to Global Economics Edited by Robert Beynon Routledge Companion to Feminism and Postfeminism Edited by Sarah Gamble Routledge Companion to the New Cosmology Edited by Peter Coles Routledge Companion to Postmodernism Edited by Stuart Sim Routledge Companion to Russian Literature Edited by Neil Cornwell Routledge Companion to Semiotics and Linguistics Edited by Paul Cobley Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right By Peter Davies and Derek Lynch THE ROUTLEDGE COMPANION TO FASCISM AND THE FAR RIGHT Peter Davies and Derek Lynch First published 2002 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” # 2002 Peter Davies and Derek Lynch All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-203-99472-8 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0–415–21494–7 (hbk) ISBN 0–415–21495–5 (pbk) CONTENTS List of maps vii Acknowledgements ix Note x Introduction 1 Part I Fascism and the far right: The basics 13 Chronology 15 Background 34 Historiography 42 A–Z of historians 58 Maps 72 Part II Fascism and the far right: Themes 87 Roots and origins 89 Evolution of ideology 100 Nation and race 113 Civil society 126 The economy 139 Diplomacy and international relations 151 The practice of politics in government and opposition 167 Part III Fascism and the far right: Sources, names and terms 185 Guide to sources 187 Biography 195 Glossary 248 Guide to secondary reading 360 Notes 386 Bibliography 398 Index 404 v MAPS See pages 72–85 1 Anxiety and rebellion: prelude to fascism, 1870–1920 2 Flashpoints in Central Europe, 1918–39 3 Mussolini’s cage 4 Japanese ambitions: from continentalism to the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere 5 Some right-wing dictatorships in Europe, 1920–45 6 Some manifestations of far-right politics in Europe since 1945 7 Some manifestations of right-wing dictatorship and violence in Africa since 1965 8 Some manifestations of the far right in North America and the Caribbean 9 Some manifestations of right-wing dictatorship in South America, 1930–90 10 Some manifestations of the authoritarian or nationalist right in the Middle East and South Asia 11 The break-up of a nation? Flashpoints for secessionism and repression in Indonesia, 2002 12 Russia’s vulnerable underbelly: far-right perceptions of Islamic and Turkic threats to Russian territorial integrity 13 Flashpoints for irredentism in post-Communist Eastern Europe vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the following people: Gillian Oliver, Lauren Dallinger and Vicky Peters at Routledge for their support and encouragement; Bill Roberts and Rainer Horn at the University of Huddersfield for their help on specific topics. We are also indebted to the many historians and political scientists who have worked on the subject of fascism before us. It has been a pleasure to explore their writings. ix NOTE Throughout the book, cross-references will be shown in bold. They aim to help the reader navigate through the book. All names and terms in bold can be found in either the Biography or the Glossary. INTRODUCTION The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right is designed as a reference source and guide for all those with an interest in the phenomenon of fascism and far-right politics. Given a pervasive, and in some respects, unhealthy preoccupation with the Second World War and fascism among some sections of the general public, the popular literature on the topic is vast and slightly unhelpful. However, there is also a renewed interest in the serious academic study of fascism and the far right, fuelled by the persistence of extremist ideology in a post-Cold War world in which ideology was meant to wither away.1 The 1990s witnessed the revived visibility of ethno-nationalism and associated genocidal violence (e.g. in Bosnia or Rwanda); the influence of former neo-fascists in the Italian Alleanza Nazionale (AN); the prominence of the Front National (FN) in France, the Freiheitliche Partei O¨ sterreichs (FPO¨ )in Austria, the National Demokratische Partei Deutschlands (NPD) in Germany, and groups like Pamyat in Russia. These trends go beyond Europe: we could include the rise of Hindu nationalism in India, as reflected in the ascendancy of the Bharatiya Janata Party and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), or the prominence of some of the more violent and conspiratorial ‘militia’ groups in the US. At an instinctive level, all of these are called ‘far right’, just as fascism is; and yet there is unease about linking them all to Adolf Hitler or Benito Mussolini. An accurate understanding of these phenomena requires careful study and some effort at dispassionate analysis. ‘FASCISM’ AND ‘FASCISMS’ The first problem to be encountered by any observer is that of a definition, or, seen another way, that of too many definitions, not merely of ‘the far right’ but of ‘fascism’ itself. A more precise purpose of the Companion, therefore, is to help readers understand the location of fascism and the far right on the political landscape, and the boundaries between them and other movements of thought in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. To this end, readers will find material on rightist parties or personalities that are/were close to fascism, as well as those that are commonly juxtaposed with it. The Companion will provoke readers into asking questions about the nature of these ideologies, as well as providing some answers. One question may already have crossed their minds: why not confine the book to fascism? The most obvious reply is that fascism is seen as a quintessential movement of the far right. It is also evident that some concerns emphasised by fascists were or 1 INTRODUCTION are still shared by parties of the far right, and the boundary between the two is frequently difficult to define. However, and this is an important point, there are many instances in which the boundary can be defined. This is because, on closer inspection, many fascist and fascist-like movements are, or have been, quite revolutionary in their desire to overturn the existing social order or to provoke a kind of permanent revolution. Fascist populism has frequently stressed the mobilisation of the masses in ways that scare the more conservative middle classes. While much of fascism’s anti-capitalist propaganda has merely been rhetorical, some fascisms have exhibited an anti-free market strand inherited from socialism, or, indeed, anarchism. Thus, if ‘right wing’ simply means ‘conservative’, the question of whether fascism was essentially right wing is not so open and shut. Sternhell, for one, characterised early French fascism as ‘neither right nor left’.2 Ambiguities and paradoxes such as these abound and cannot be dismissed as ‘merely academic’ preoccupations. They are critical to an understanding of the role of fascism and the far right in modern history and politics, even in the post-Cold War world, and, we hope, are already among the concerns of the curious and inquisitive reader of a book like this one. Before discussing the ‘far right’ in general, a few words about fascism itself are in order. The term was most widely used to refer to the movement surrounding Mussolini, although some other right-wing Italian groups in the years after the First World War also employed it.