IN SEARCH OF THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE OLD TESTAMENT IN AFRICA: THE CASE OF THE LEMBA by MAGDEL LE ROUX submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject BIBLICAL STUDIES at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA PROMOTER: PROF E H SCHEFFLER NOVEMBER 1999 Contemporary (1964) Ethiopian painting on cloth depicting how the Queen ofSheba journeyed to King Solomon by boat accompanied by her retinue (Photo: Kessler 1982) - 'WE CAME BY BOAT TO AFRICA .. .' CA LEMBA TRADITION) 'Solomon sent his ships to get gold from Ophir ... Some ofthe Jews who went on those boats stayed in Africa. That is the origin ofthe Lemba' (cfpp 155,156) CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS SUMMARY MAPS CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ~ 1.1 HISTORY OF THE PROJECT . 1 1.2 METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS ............................ 3 I~ 1.2.1 Qualitative research methods . 3 1.2.l.l The phenomenological perspective . 4 1.2.1.2 Participant observation . 5 1.2.1.3 Jn-depth interviewing . 6 1.2.1.4 The interview guide . 6 1.2.2 Processing and interpretation . 7 1.2.3 Conclusion ~··~ . 8 1.3 THE PURPOSE AND STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS .................... 8 1.3.1 The purpose of the thesis . 8 1.3.2 Limitations and delimitations of this project: the structure of the thesis . 11 CHAPTER TWO VARIOUS RECEPTIONS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT IN AFRICA: SOME OBSERVATIONS 2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................ 14 2.2 OSTENSIBLE REASONS FOR 'RELIGIOUS SHIFTS' WORLD-WIDE . 17 2.3 'JUDAISING' MOVEMENTS IN AFRICA . 19 2.3.1 Groups upon whom the idea of Jewishness was imposed ................. 21 2.3.1.1 The 'Hottentots' as children ofAbraham . 21 2.3.1.2 The Zulus and ancient Israel . 22 2.3.1.3 The Sotho-Tswana and the laws of the Old Testament . 24 2.3.1.4 The Xhosa: an ancient priesthood . 24 2.3.1.5 The Dutch Boers - ancient Jews . 25 2.3.1.6 Possible remnants of the concept of being Jewish . 25 2.3.2 The Lemba and their 'Jewish' identity ............................... 26 2.4 CONCLUSION . 29 CHAPTER THREE CONFLICTING ACCOUNTS ON THE SO-CALLED SEMITIC HISTORY AND ORIGINS OF THE LEMBA 3 .1 INTRODUCTION . 31 3.2 ANTHROPOLOGICAL, ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND OTHER ACCOUNTS ON THE HISTORY AND ORIGINS OF THE LEMBA ....................... 32 3.2.1 Maritime undertakings between the Semitic world and East Africa and all references to possible 'Semitic' groups in Southeast Africa ............... 32 3.2.1.1 The Phoenicians and the Hebrews .................................. 32 3.2.1.2 The Sabaeans or pre-Islamic Arabians (Yemenites) . 32 3.2.1.3 Islamic Arabs . 3 5 3.2.1.4 Abyssinians ................................................... 36 3.1.2.5 The Portuguese . 3 7 3.2.2 Accounts on the history of the Lemba north of the Limpopo . 39 3.2.3 Accounts on the history of the Lemba south of the Limpopo . 45 3.2.3.l The 'genealogi,es' and more recent accounts on the history of the different Lemba clans ........................................................ 53 3.3 THEORIES OF ORIGIN . 57 3.3.1 A pre-Islamic-Judaic-Arabic origin ................................. 57 3.3.1.1 Relating oral history and historical facts to genetic data . 58 3.3.1.2 Criticism on the pre-Islamic-Judaic-Arabic theory . 62 3.3.2 An Islamic-Arabic origin . 63 3.3.2.1 Criticism on the Islamic-Arabic theory . 64 3.3.3 A Falasha-Abyssinic origin . 65 3.3.3.1 Criticism on the Falasha-Abyssinic theory ............................ 66 3.3.4 Evaluation . 68 CHAPTER FOUR SOCIAL PRACTICES OF THE LEMBA AND EARLY ISRAEL 4.1 FOOD RITUALS AND TABOOS .................................... 73 4.1.1 The Lemba . 73 4.1.1.1 The 'wasenzhi ' or heathen . 73 4.1.1.2 Ritual washing . 74 4.1.1.3 Dietary laws ......... .......................................... 74 4.1.1.4 Slaughter rituals ............................................... 76 4.1.1.5 Fasting ....................................................... 76 4.1.2 Early Israel . 77 11 4.1.2.1 1he heathen ................................................... 77 4.1.2.2 Ritual washing ................................................. 77 4.1. 2. 3 Dietary laws . 77 4.1.2.4 Slaughter ritual ................................................ 78 4.1.2.5 Fasting . ...................................................... 78 4.1.3 Evaluation and comparison ........................................ 78 TABLE 1: COMPARISON - FOOD RITUALS AND TABOOS ................. 80 4.2 MARITAL LAWS ................................................ 81 4.2.1 The Lemba ..................................................... 81 4.2.1.1 Endogamy .................................................... 81 4.2.1.2 Proselytization and purification . 82 4.2.1.3 Polygamy and monogamy ........................................ 83 4.2.1.4 Levirate marriages .............................................. 83 4.2.1.5 Lobo/a ....................................................... 84 4.2.1.6 Women marrying other women . 84 4.2.2 Early Israel ..................................................... 85 4.2.2.1 Endogamy .................................................... 85 4.2.2.2 Proselytization and purification .................................... 86 4.2.2.3 Polygamy and monogamy ........................................ 86 4.2.2.4 Levirate marriages .............................................. 87 4.2.2.5 "71/J::J (dowry or bride's price) ...................................... 87 4.2.3 Evaluation and comparison ........................................ 88 TABLE 2: COMPARISON - MARITAL LAWS ............................. 88 4.3 BURIAL CUSTOMS .............................................. 90 4.3.1 The Lemba ..................................................... 90 4.3.1.1 1he procedures ................................................ 90 4.3.1.2 Mourning ..................................................... 91 4.3.2 Early Israel . 92 4.3.2.1 1he procedures ................................................ 92 4.3.2.2 Mourning .......................... ·........................... 93 4.3.3 Evaluation and comparison ........................................ 94 TABLE 3: COMPARISON - BURIAL CUSTOMS ........................... 94 4.4 SKILLED PROFESSIONS ......................................... 95 4.4.1 The Lemba ..................................................... 95 4.4.1.1 Masters ofmagic arts and 'medicine men' ............................ 95 4.4.1.2 Pottery, iron and copper smelting, cotton weaving and building skills ....... 96 4.4.1.3 Traders ...................................................... 97 4.4.2 Early Israel . 99 4.4.2.1 Pottery, juwellers, weavers and the metalwork industry .................. 99 lll 4.4.2.2 Traders . 100 4.4.3 Evaluation and comparison ....................................... 101 TABLE 4: COMPARISON - SPECIAL SKILLS ............................ 101 4.5 SOCIAL ORGANISATION ........................................ 102 4.5.1 The Lemba .................................................... 102 4.5.1.1 Twelve clans/lineages ................. .......................... 102 4. 5.1. 2 Praises and praise-songs . 103 4. 5.1. 3 A segmentary society with a loose social organisation . 106 4.5.2 Early Israel .. 107 4. 5. 2.1 Twelve clans . 107 4.5.2.2 Praises and sayings . 107 4. 5. 2. 3 A segmentary society with a loose social organisation . 109 4.5.3 Evaluation and comparison . 111 TABLE 5: COMPARISON - SOCIAL ORGANISATION .................... 112 CHAPTER FIVE RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE AMONG THE LEMBA AND EARLY ISRAEL 5.1 THE RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE AMONG THE LEMBA ................ 116 5.1.1 Conceptions of God/gods . 116 5.1.2 Covenant-making with men ....................................... 119 5.1.3 Ngoma lungundu ('the drum that thunders') ......................... 120 5.1.4 Mountains, rivers and other sacred places ........................... 123 5.1.5 The cult of the ancestors . 125 5.1.6 Annunciations and other encounters ................................ 128 5.2 THE RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE IN EARLY ISRAEL .................. 129 5.2.1 Conceptions of God/gods ......................................... 129 5.2.2 Covenant-making with men . 133 5.2.3 The Ark of the Covenant ......................................... 134 5.2.4 Mountains, rivers and others holy places ............................ 135 5.2.5 The cult of the ancestors .......................................... 137 5.2.6 Annunciations and other encounters ................................ 140 5.3 INFLUENCES FROM DIFFERENT RELIGIONS ON THE RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE OF THE LEMBA AND EARLY ISRAEL ................. 141 5.3.1 Influence of other religions on the religious experience of the Lemba . 141 5.3.1.1 African traditional religions . 141 5.3.1.2 Christianity . 141 (a) Church affiliations . 141 (b) The influence of some Lemba practices on the Christian church ........... 142 lV 5.3.1.3 Islam ....................................................... 143 5.3.2 The influence of other religions on the religious experience of early Israel . 144 5.3.2.1 The religion of the Canaanites . 144 5.3.2.2 Egyptian monotheism and other religions ........................... 146 5.4 EVALUATION AND COMPARISON ............................... 146 TABLE 6: COMPARISON - THE EXPERIENTIAL DIMENSION ............ 148 CHAPTER SIX MYTH AMONG THE LEMBA AND EARLY ISRAEL 6.1 MYTH AMONG THE LEMBA ..................................... 154 6.1.1 Creation mythology ............................................. 154 6.1.2 From the 'Promised Land' through the desert, by sea to Africa . 155 6.1.3 Guided by a star and ngoma lungundu .............................. 158 6.2 MYTH IN EARLY