Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research University of Oran-Es-Senia Faculty of Letters, Languages, and Arts Department of Anglo-Saxon Languages A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Magister in American Civilization Japanese Americans in the USA: Experience and Adjustment to Mainstream America 1920s-1980s Presented by: Supervised by: Mokhtari Walid Dr. Moulfi Leila Members of the Jury: Soutenue le 02 Mars 2015 Dr. Belmekki Belkacem (President) MCA University of Oran Dr. Moulfi Leila (supervisor) MCA University of Oran Dr. Benhattab Abdelkader Lotfi (Examiner) MCA University of Oran Dr. Ouahmiche Ghania (Examiner) MCA University of Oran Academic Year: 2014-2015 Dedication I dedicate this work to my dear family especially my parents for their endless support and patience throughout the making of this dissertation. I also dedicate it to all those who know me from near or far, everybody has actually helped either directly or indirectly. I Acknowledgements Writing this dissertation would have been far difficult without the help of many people to whom I’m very much indebted. It is my great pleasure to acknowledge this fact and to extend my heartfelt thanks, first and foremost to my supervisor Dr. Moulfi Leila for her commitment and constant tutoring, unstinting support and help throughout the making of this work. A special thanks goes to Dr. Belmakki Belkacem for his support and guidance. I extend my gratitude to the members of the panel of examiners namely: Dr. Benhattab Lotfi, and Dr. Ouahmiche Ghania for having accepted to read as well as examine my dissertation. And a huge thanks to all friends and colleagues who have encouraged me on my way with good pieces of advice, and never-flagging enthusiasm. II Abstract This dissertation tackles an investigation of Japanese immigrants to the United States of America, their experience, and their process of adjusting to the American way of life. Hence, three parts weave through this dissertation: First, chapter one presents a historical background of Japan, its ancient role, and its rise as a world power from the Tokugawa era to the first two decades of the twentieth century. Second, chapter two revolves around Japanese immigration to the United States and investigates the Japanese American circumstances. Chapter two also covers the endurance of internment of Japanese Americans in concentration camps during World War II after the Pearl Harbor attack and their fight for survival. And lastly, chapter three tackles Japanese Americans experience in the aftermath of World War II. Additionally, chapter three also investigates their adjustment and their assimilation to mainstream American society. Long isolated, Japan opened its shore to the world in 1868 after the arrival of Commodore Mathew C. Perry of the United States in 1853. After a treaty was signed between the two countries, thousands of Japanese migrated and settled in Hawaii and California. Unfortunately, from the onset, they were always considered second class as inassimilable to mainstream America. Suspected of spying on the United States during WWII to help invade America, Japanese Americans were evacuated and sent to internment camps. More than 110, 000 Japanese, among whom 68 % American citizens were dispatched to assembly centers to be transferred to isolated “permanent” camps situated in deserted regions of the country. After the war, Japan was no longer an enemy but rather an economic and political ally of the United States. As a consequence, the attitudes of Americans towards Japanese changed over the years. Japanese Americans, on their part, not only climbed the social and economic ladder, but also were considered as a “model minority”. III Résumé Le présent travail constitue une analyse des expériences des japonais immigrées aux Etats unis, et la manière avec laquelle ils ont assimilé dans le mode de vie américain. Tout d’abord, le premier chapitre présente un background historique du japon, son rôle traditionnel, et son essor au niveau international dès l’ère de Tokugawa jusqu’aux les deux premières décennies du vingt et unième siècle. Le deuxième chapitre examine l’émigration des japonais aux Etats unis. Il couvre aussi leur internement dans les camps d’évacuation et leur lutte pour leurs droits. Le troisième chapitre traite l’expérience des japonais américains après la Deuxième Guerre Mondiale et leur assimilation dans la société américaine. Long temps isolé, le Japon s’est ouvert sur le monde dès 1868 après l’arrivée de Commodore Mathew C. Perry d’états unis en 1953. Après un traité entre le Japon et les Etats Unis, des milliers de japonais s’établirent à Hawaii et en Californie. Malheureusement, dès le début, ils ont été toujours considérés comme une deuxième classe inassimilable à la société américaine. Le bombardement de Pearl Harbour le 7 décembre 1941declencha dans tout le pays, et surtout en Californie, un mouvement d’hostilité et haine envers les japonais américains. Soupçonnés d’espionner au profit de l’ennemi et de préparer l’invasion des Etats Unis, les japonais américains ont été envoyé dans les camps d’internement. Plus de 110, 000 japonais, dont 68 % étaient des citoyens américains, ont été rassemblés dans des centres temporaires puis transférés dans les camps d’internement isolés et en plus situés dans des régions désertiques du pays. Après la guerre, le Japon n’était plus l’ennemi mais un partenaire économique et politique aux états unis. L’attitude des américains à leur égard avait changé. Les japonais américains ont fait une ascension sociale considérable et ils sont été considérés comme une minorité modèle. IV Table of Contents Dedication .................................................................................................................................. I Acknowledgement .................................................................................................................. II Abstract .................................................................................................................................. III Résumé ................................................................................................................................... IV Table of Contents ................................................................................................................... V General Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 Chapter One: Old Japan: A historical background of Japanese Americans 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 5 2 Japan’s geography and climate ................................................................................... 7 3 Pre-Meiji Restoration, the Tokugawa shoguns ........................................................... 9 3.1 The Daimyo ........................................................................................................ 13 3.2 The Samurai ....................................................................................................... 13 4 Opening up Japan and The Fall of the Tokugawa .................................................... 17 5 The Meiji Restoration ............................................................................................... 19 6 Meiji Japan ................................................................................................................ 20 6.1 The Iwakura Mission .......................................................................................... 21 6.2 The Constitution ................................................................................................. 23 6.3 Eliminating the Status system ............................................................................ 24 6.4 The Army and Navy ........................................................................................... 26 6.5 Economy in Meiji Era ........................................................................................ 27 6.7 Education in the Meiji Era ................................................................................. 30 7 Western Literature in Japan ...................................................................................... 33 8 A Sense of Nationalism ............................................................................................ 34 9 Imperial Japan ........................................................................................................... 34 9.1 Sino-Japanese War (1884-1885) ........................................................................ 35 9.2 Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) ...................................................................... 37 10 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 40 V Chapter Two: The Japanese experience in America 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 42 2 Why and how they came? ......................................................................................... 45 3 Meiji government and early immigrants ................................................................... 47 4 Conditions on the plantations .................................................................................... 48 5 The Gentlemen’s Agreement