An Affective Interface for Conveying Student Feedback Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment with the requirements of the University of Liverpool for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Experimental Psychology by Savandie Rupika Abeyratna April 2012 1 An affective interface for conveying student feedback Savandie Rupika Abeyratna ABSTRACT In the present information age, decision-makers and modern society in general are challenged by the need to effectively handle large amounts of interrelated data obtained via electronic means. This thesis attempts to addresses the need for more effective data analysis and interpretation for decision-making. In particular, the study investigates whether virtual facial expressions (FEs) can be effectively applied as a non-verbal means to convey student feedback ‘at-a-glance’ and accurately with regard to affective content. This research has a threefold aim: (i) to handle the complex nature of multi-criteria type feedback data; (ii) map the feedback data into appropriate FEs and (iii) represent the data using a non-verbal affective interface. The approach adapted is such that the two-dimensional Kano model of satisfaction is established to evaluate feedback data in accord with multiple criteria; based on this, an aggregate score is generated that best represents the student feedback. Facial expressions of emotion are mapped to one-dimensional scales and the two-dimensional satisfaction space using psychophysical methods; mappings used to convert multi-criteria based student satisfaction ratings onto a pictorial representation in the form of cartoon facial expressions. A proof-of-concept prototype of an affective interface is developed and evaluated in terms of accuracy of the proposed non-verbal feedback analysis approach. The main findings of this study are that multi-criteria evaluation that takes into account two- dimensional quality can produce measures of satisfaction significantly correlated with manual rating. Student feedback can be conveyed accurately using virtual FEs provided that the multi-criteria analysis has been successful. Use of FEs to convey student feedback is faster than conventional feedback display modes. i Acknowledgements First of all I would like to thank my supervisors Prof. Galina and Dr. Hissam for providing me with this opportunity and putting up with me. I would like to thank Prof. Galina for being the best teacher I have ever had and for all the support, guidance and help she provided me with all aspects of my life. Also a special thank you to Dr. Hissam for believing in me and pushing me to reach my goal. I would also like to thank Slawomir Skwarek for introducing me to the Kano model, which plays a major role in my research. Also thank you to and all my colleges at the IDS laboratory for pushing me to work harder and motivating me. I would like to thank my parents for their constant prayers, love and support. I could never have come on this journey if it wasn’t for you both. I am so blessed and grateful to have been born as the daughter to such a god and goddess. Ammi, thank you for helping me hold my head-up always, and Thathi thank you for carrying my weight no matter how big I got. I would also like to thank all my friends for the help, support, food and laughter they provided me in distressful times. A big thank you to Cris for being my assistant and being by my side during the home stretch. You are greatly appreciated. Thank you to everyone who said a prayer for me and was thinking of me. Of course, thank you to CC for being the silver lining in my life. Last but not least, I would like to thank the forces of nature that have always been there with me in my life and during this journey, guiding me in the right direction and supporting my every move. Especially a big thank you to the Angel that was sent from above to make sure I submitted my thesis. Thank you. I couldn’t have done this without you all. ii In loving memory of Appachchi ma nivatta, abhikkhama “Falter not; advance.” -Lord Buddha- iii Table of Contents ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... II LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. VI LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. X CHAPTER 1 FACIAL EXPRESSIONS AS A MEANS OF NON-VERBAL FEEDBACK 1.1 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION .................................................................................... 1 1.2 FACIAL EXPRESSIONS OF EMOTION AS NON-VERBAL FEEDBACK: RATIONALE OF THE PRESENT STUDY ...................................................................................................................... 3 1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................. 7 1.4 THESIS OUTLINE .............................................................................................................. 8 CHAPTER 2 MEASURING SATISFACTION: PSYCHOMETRIC TOOLS AND MODELS 2.1 UNDERSTANDING SATISFACTION .................................................................................. 11 2.2 MODELS OF CUSTOMER SATISFACTION ........................................................................ 12 2.3 PSYCHOMETRIC TOOLS FOR MEASURING CUSTOMER SATISFACTION ........................ 24 2.4 CUSTOMER SATISFACTION AND MULTI-CRITERIA ANALYSIS ...................................... 33 CHAPTER 3 FACIAL EXPRESSIONS AS THE MEANS OF CONVEYING SATISFACTION 3.1 CONVEYING SATISFACTION ........................................................................................... 45 3.2 FACIAL EXPRESSIONS OF EMOTION: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ............................... 47 3.3 MAPPING FACIAL EXPRESSIONS TO SATISFACTION–DISSATISFACTION SCALES ........ 52 3.4 MAPPING FACIAL EXPRESSIONS TO TWO-DIMENSIONAL CUSTOMER SATISFACTION SPACE ................................................................................................................................... 71 3.5 DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................... 89 CHAPTER 4 THE NATIONAL STUDENT SURVEY (NSS) AS A CASE STUDY OF MEASURING SATISFACTION 4.1 MEASURING AND MANAGING QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION (HE)......................... 91 4.2 STUDENT FEEDBACK ...................................................................................................... 92 4.3 MEASURING STUDENT SATISFACTION: APPLICATION OF THE KANO MODEL OF CUSTOMER SATISFACTION TO THE NATIONAL STUDENT SURVEY DATA ........................ 107 iv CHAPTER 5 PROTOTYPING AND EVALUATION OF AN AFFECTIVE INTERFACE 5.1 SYSTEM SPECIFICATION .............................................................................................. 126 5.2 PROTOTYPING .............................................................................................................. 133 5.3 EVALUATION ................................................................................................................ 139 CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK ...................................................................................... 164 6.1 CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................................. 164 6.2 FUTURE WORK............................................................................................................. 167 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 168 APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................... 203 APPENDIX 1 ........................................................................................................................ 204 EMOTICON REFERENCE SET ............................................................................................. 204 APPENDIX 2 ........................................................................................................................ 205 SET-UP OF THE EXPERIMENT 1 .......................................................................................... 205 APPENDIX 3 ........................................................................................................................ 206 SELECTION OF ANCHOR EMOTICONS ............................................................................... 206 APPENDIX 4 ........................................................................................................................ 210 SET-UP OF THE EXPERIMENT 2 .......................................................................................... 210 APPENDIX 5 ........................................................................................................................ 211 EXPERIMENT 2: INSTRUCTIONS ............................................................................. 211 APPENDIX 6 ........................................................................................................................ 214 ROTTER'S LOCUS OF CONTROL ASSESSMENT QUESTIONNAIRE ...................................... 214 APPENDIX 7 .......................................................................................................................