HENRIQUE GALVÃO, 1895-197O: ASPECTS OF A EURO-AFRICAN CRUSADE by LUIS MIGUEL SOLLA DE ANDRADE PERES submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the subject HISTORY at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: Professor F A MOUTON JOINT SUPERVISOR: Professor O J O FERREIRA MARCH 2009 I declare that Henrique Galvão, 1895-1970: Aspects of a Euro-African Crusade is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. -------------------------------- L M S A PERES MARCH 2009 SUMMARY This study deals with various aspects of the life of Henrique Galvão (1895-1970) but principally with the seizure of the liner Santa Maria (1961) in opposition to the regime of Dr Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970). It describes the ship’s hijacking and explores its ramifications within the context of the 1961 Angolan nationalist uprising, Portuguese internal politics and Luso-American relations. A brief discussion of Portuguese history from 1910 to 1933 provides the background to Galvão’s affiliation to Salazar’s regime and his subsequent apostasy. The most salient features of Galvão’s dissidence are discussed: his report on conditions in Portuguese Africa (1947-49); involvement in opposition politics (1951-59); the hijacking of an air liner for propaganda purposes (1961) and appearance before the United Nations (1963). These events are connected to the themes of colonial administration, anti-colonialism, African nationalism, anti-Salazarist politics and the African policy of the United States (1961-63). i Henrique Carlos Malta Galvão Boletim Geral das Colónias July 1934 ii CONTENTS Page Summary i Abbreviations iii Illustrations iv Preface vi Introduction 1 1 The historical context: Portugal 1910-33 14 2 From Sidonist to Salazarist and beyond 1895-1959 35 3 Operation Dulcinea: conception and shoestring preparations 78 4 The Santa Maria vanishes 91 5 The search for the missing liner 103 6 Operation Dulcinea, 26-28 January 118 7 Negotiations 135 8 Debarkation 158 9 The end of the affair 169 10 Impact and implications 180 11 In the wake of the Santa Maria 1961-75 202 Conclusion 226 Sources 233 ABBREVIATIONS CADC Centro Académico da Democracia Cristã (Academic Centre for Christian Democracy) CCN Companhia Colonial de Navegação (Colonial Navigation Company) CPC Centro Português Católico (Portuguese Catholic Centre) DRIL Directório Revolucionário Ibérico de Libertação (Iberian Revolutionary Directorate of Liberation) EN Emissora Nacional (National Radio) FAPLE Frente Antitotalitária dos Portugueses Livres Exilados (Antitotalitarian Front of Free Exiled Portuguese) FPLN Frente Patriótica de Libertação Nacional (Patriotic Front of National Liberation) MNI Movimento Nacional Independente (National Independent Movement) MPLA Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola) OCN Organisação Cívica Nacional (National Civic Organisation) PCP Partido Comunista Português PIDE Policia Internacional de Defesa do Estado (International Police for the Defense of the State) UN United Nations UPA União das Populações de Angola iii ILLUSTRATIONS Page Henrique Malta Galvão ii Cartoon: Business as usual: Portuguese Parliament in 1911 15 Afonso Costa 17 Anticlericalism: nuns protected by republican troops 17 Sidónio Pais, the president-king 19 Triumvirate, May 1926: General Gomes da Costa, Commander Mendes Cabeçadas, General Carmona 25 Cartoon: Salazar, the miraculous finance minister 28 Map: “Portugal is not a small country” 42 Salazar and Galvão at the 1934 Colonial Exhibition in Oporto 43 The Prince of Wales and Galvão 44 Marcello Caetano in1945 56 The Santa Maria (1953-73) 84 The Santa Maria’s journey 87 The takeover of the Santa Maria’s wheelhouse 93 Caroline Boyce’s message 107 Henrique Galvão, the rebel skipper 109 Humberto Delgado, Dulcinea’s political face 109 Three rebels: Jorge Sotomayor, Henrique Galvão, Augustin Rojo 119 “Pirates” enjoy a meal 129 iv Galvão’s request for asylum 131 “En route to freedom menu” 136 Admiral Allen Smith and Galvão negotiate 138 Charles Bonnay in the drink 140 A U.S. Navy launch approaches the Santa Maria’s stern 141 Charles Elbrick: American ambassador in Lisbon 144 Jânio da Silva Quadros 149 Third-class passengers riot 159 The rebel liner enters Recife harbour 161 For them the revolution is over: passengers coming down the stairway 163 Dulcinea’s last night: Brazilian marines resting on the ship’s empty decks 166 A pensive Henrique Galvão waits to leave the ship 171 The Santa Maria arrives home 177 Salazar and Captain Maia aboard the Santa Maria 178 Franco Nogueira and John F. Kennedy 199 Anti-American demonstration in Lisbon, 1961 200 Henrique Galvão addresses the United Nations 218 Cartoon: view of Portuguese colonialism in the wake of the Santa Maria 224 v PREFACE Unexpected circumstances diverted me from my initial registered topic on Portuguese colonial policy (1961-62) of which Henrique Galvão and the seizure of the liner Santa Maria were a component. A detail of that abandoned project thus became the subject of this study. Although intrigued by the maverick Portuguese rebel ever since childhood, I knew little about the man and his life. This study thus became a means to instruct myself on a matter that had a direct bearing on my personal experience. Some interesting memories of the Santa Maria incident remained from my formative years in Portuguese Africa (Mozambique, to be precise). The general (adult) perception of the assault, for example, as the work of a brilliant man whose mind had been tainted by insanity. This was someone driven by the quest for fame at all costs. “Era louco” (he was mad) was an expression often heard in reference to Galvão. People spoke of the hijacking as an antipatriotic event directly related to the 1961 uprising in Angola. That connection conjured up shocking photographic images of mutilated bodies strewn in Angolan plantations secretly witnessed in my parents’ library. All this may have subconsciously framed some of the central questions motivating this study: who was Galvão? What did he want? What was the Santa Maria all about? Was there a real link between the liner and the violent events in northern Angola? And so on. It has taken a number of years to research and write this thesis. I am fully accountable for the protracted time frame. There were far too many instances of false starts, exploration of dead ends, writing paralysis and mental confusion to discuss here. Admittedly, Lewis Namier’s dictum that you need to be fifty before aspiring to be a good historian1 has been a source of hope and consolation. Looking at my exercise book – yellowed with age – serving as a depository for ideas and insights regarding Galvão and the Santa Maria over the years, it occurs to me that in spite of its long gestation this 1 Quoted in A.J.P. Taylor, A Personal History (London, 1984), p.331. x project has been most educational. The entries in the little frayed book chart my journey from an over-ambitious would-be writer – ignorant about the realities of writing - to the much more humble author of this study. That alone made it all worthwhile. Working on a Portuguese topic in South Africa meant almost hermetic seclusion. Galvão, his antics at sea and for that matter Portuguese Africa, have largely exited public memory. But even a solitary pursuit would not be possible without the cooperation and friendship of a number of people. They are, of course, not accountable for any errors in this work; those remain my sole responsibility. I should like to register my gratitude to: the late Maria del Carmen Solla Fernandes for the unconditional support, crucial assistance with Portuguese sources, the use of her private library and most of all for providing an example of tenacity; Professor Alex Mouton whose enthusiasm for my work kept me at my desk; Professor O.J.O. Ferreira for the ever-stimulating commentary; Douglas L. Wheeler (Professor of History Emeritus, University of New Hampshire, USA) for the personal interest in my case and extreme kindness in providing unique source material as well as shedding light on some of the more intricate parts of my subject; Jade Peres who, besides enduring my preoccupation with Henrique Galvão for a large part of her young life, provided many insightful opinions as well as valuable help with computer and microfilm aspects; Irene Peres for the unflagging support, encouragement and all the years of listening to my ramblings on Galvão’s crusade; Professor Joaquim da Silva Cunha for a most elucidating interview; xi Margarita Ledo Andíon, director of the Santa Liberdade documentary, for prompt assistance to a total stranger; Eduardo Peres for the telephonic surveillance of the work-in-progress that, I suspect, was motivated by big brotherly love; Kevin Garcia whose friendship, incisive historical mind and conversation have always been a source of inspiration; Professor Greg Cuthbertson for the countless hours (and coffees) trying hard to ‘jump- start’ a hopeless student; Hoover whose silent K9 company provided a shield from total isolation; I also wish to thank the staffs of the various institutions that helped me during the course of researching this thesis. In Portugal at the Arquivo Salazar, and in particular Dr Jorge Borges de Macedo for providing the much treasured cartão de leitor; at the archive and library of the Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) where I was made to feel at home. I thoroughly enjoyed working there. xii In South Africa at Unisa Library ; Johannesburg Public Library and the Strange Library (Jhb). L.M.S.A. Peres JOHANNESBURG March 2009 xiii INTRODUCTION Outside Portugal and Spain, Henrique Galvão and the Santa Maria incident are much forgotten now. And even in those two countries public memory has begun to wane.