1 Indian Residential Schools, Settler Colonialism and Their Narratives in Canadian History Tricia Logan Royal Holloway, University of London History PhD 2 Declaration of Authorship I, Tricia Logan hereby declare that this thesis and the work presented in it is entirely my own. Where I have consulted the work of others, this is always clearly stated. Signed 12 September 2016 3 Abstract Canadian history is often divided on how to represent and describe the Indian residential school system. As a system of industrial-boarding style schools it forcibly removed First Nations, Métis and Inuit children from every region of Canada in order to covert them to Christianity, assimilate them into Canadian society and impose the ‘national pattern’ of Canada on to generations of Indigenous children. This study examines the history of Indian residential schools using oral histories of residential school Survivors, who provide details about their forced removal, treatment at the schools and intergenerational impacts they faced after leaving the schools. These narratives are placed in context with Canadian history, which often under- emphasizes the role this school system had in creating Canada as a nation- state. This study contextualizes the history of the schools and the history of Canada as settler colonial genocide. The schools did not operate in isolation and they were part of a series of political and societal mechanisms in Canada, created to extract Indigenous presence from Canada. Settler Colonial genocide in Canada is far-reaching, temporally, socially and spatially. Use of the term ‘genocide’ remains under debate in Canada and as it is applied to cases of genocides against Indigenous peoples. This study should be a contribution to Canadian historiographies and it should address this debate and create a position in relation to the debate. As Canada faces an era of reconciliation, these histories and contexts of settler colonialism are scrutinized but they are also used to acknowledge experiences of Survivors that were covered up in Canadian history for several decades. 4 Acknowledgements Marsii and Miigwich to all of the Survivors and Elders who shared their stories and knowledge with me and with the Legacy of Hope. The knowledge I was granted was greater than anything I could fit inside a written piece of work and I hope by sharing their stories I respect and honour what was shared. To my supervisor Dan Stone, thank you for your gifts of knowledge and experience that you shared with me. I brought my ways from ‘the Dominion’ and you helped me find a path and a place here. Your patience and kindness will always be remembered. Marsii to the Legacy of Hope Foundation (LHF) and to everyone who helped create and care for the Our Stories Our Strength Collection. Thanks Tania Budgell and Trina Bolam for your support with the collection. A special thank you to Jane Hubbard who provided exceptional support for this study and who helped me find my way to this work. Without the support of librarians and archivists at the British Library, Library and Archives Canada, National Archives, Vatican Apostolic Library, New York Public Library and from Sergei at Kingston Library this dissertation could have never taken shape. I feel I will not remember everyone who helped me along the way but kind thanks go to: Andrew Woolford, Jeff Benvenuto, Dirk Moses, Adam Muller, Sherry Farrell-Racette and Jonathan Dewar. To my examiners, Tom Lawson and Damien Short thank you for carrying these heavy pages with you, both literally and metaphorically. I also received a great deal of help, often in the toughest times from brilliant people who are friends of writing and friends of the past; Alexander Gent, John Robins, Elis James and Jeremy Pinkos. Many thanks to Royal Holloway, University of London for the funding I received via the Crosslands Scholarship that was provided throughout my studies. I also received gracious gifts of places to stay, cars to drive and meals as I moved around Canada and the UK for study trips. Thank you especially to 5 Sara Fryer, Heather and Paul Baker, Jessica and Murray MacRae, David and Sheri Linstead, Katya and Jimmie Ferguson and Jennifer Scherr. Go raibh maith agaibh, my friends at Irish in Britain, especially Fiona Smith and Siobhan O’Neill. I am so fortunate to have found work with you while I studied and I cannot thank you enough for adding so much to what I learned while I was in London. To my friend Lyn Johnstone, who wrote her PhD dissertation in tandem with me and in every measure, was with me every step of the way. Through waves of coffee and numb elbows you listened to parts of my research no one else could possibly see or hear. I have had dear friends, working along side this PhD journey that have each saved me, repeatedly. So many thanks also to Pauline Tennent who offered more kindness to me than I could handle. To my friend Ian Rich, you taught me patience and added levity to all this when I thought I was completely lost in this process. Marsii, to my all my Aunties who passed to the spirit world and who were with me while I completed this work. To my academic Mum, Renate Eigenbrod, this dissertation came from all our conversations back in 2003. When I thought I could not finish or carry on, I carried on for you. To my Elder, Ma Tante, Rita Flamand, your gift of Michif and your lessons live on here, as well. Kitchii Marsii, Rita. Miigwetch to Jo-Ann Episkenew, my Auntie and one of my biggest supporters. Your words of encouragement are remembered, with all of your beautiful writing. I would like to acknowledge my grandmothers in the spirit world, Katherine, Helen, Anna, Amy, Eva and Emilie who have more histories than could ever be written. They taught me about work and remembering. All of this though, is for my parents, Thomas and Christine Logan. I am in awe of their unwavering support and words of encouragement. All of this work is for them. 6 7 Table of Contents Acknowledgements 4 Introduction 10 Indian Residential Schools 15 Naming and Remembering Residential Schools 19 Raphael Lemkin, Genocide and Indigenous Peoples 22 Collective Memory and Accessibility 27 Historiographical Review 28 Canadian History 30 Canadian History and Indigenous Peoples 34 Indian Residential Schools in Canada 37 Genocide and Settler Colonial Genocide 46 Methods & Methodologies 55 Oral Histories and Orality in Indigenous Communities 60 Locations & Place Names: Significance to Indigenous Peoples 61 Chapter 2 Settler Colonialism in Canada 72 Settler Colonial Genocide and Indian Residential Schools in Canada 73 Raphael Lemkin 74 Imperial, Settler and Ecclesiastical Colonialism: Mission Schools for all 77 The Civilized and the Savage 79 The Settler Problem: ‘commence planting potatoes’ 80 Agriculture and visions of ‘wasted land’ 83 The ‘Halfbreed Problem’ 84 Inuit 92 The Imposition of a New National Pattern 94 Religious Order in Canada 98 Nationalist Aspirations 100 The Disappearing Native 104 8 Rapid Social and Political Change 108 Conclusion 111 Chapter 3 Admission to Residential Schools 114 Taken 117 Admission 127 Christianization 139 Denominational Rivalry 145 Work 147 Quality of Education 157 Chapter 4 Abuse, Neglect, Resistance 162 Daily Life 163 Food & Malnutrition 171 Charity & Clergy 177 Negligence 179 Language 184 Kindness 188 Sexual Abuse 191 Resistance 196 ‘Ecclesiastical Rascals’ 200 Reporting Abuse 202 Disease & Illness 209 Death Rates 215 Chapter 5 Memory of Residential Schools 221 Collective Memories of School Inside Narratives of Canadian History 223 Student-on-Student Abuse 229 Gender 233 Separation & Loneliness 237 Running Away 238 Discharge & Release 242 Remembering the Schools 243 9 Chapter 6 Intergenerational Legacies 254 Returning Home 260 ‘Empty Shells’ 261 Fulfilling a Role 264 Returning to Families 268 Addictions 272 Domestic and Sexualized Violence 275 Returning Home – Being a Survivor 281 Returning Home – Institutions after the Institutions 284 Intergenerational Impacts 288 Breaking Family Connections and Kinship Ties 290 Incapable of Love 295 Loss of Parenting Skills 297 Positive 300 Healing 303 Child Welfare System 305 Apology 310 Compensation 313 Conclusion 318 Conclusions 319 Bibliography 325 Appendices Appendix A- Lacombe’s Ladder 352 Appendix B - Maps of Residential School Locations 353 10 Introduction Whatever may be the ultimate destiny of Canada, she will never have cause to regret that she grew up with the Empire.1 Residential schools in Canada were created in the interest of the Canadian nation-state to assimilate, Christianize and civilize generations of Indigenous children in Canada. Children from all three groups of ‘Aboriginal’ people in Canada, First Nations, Métis and Inuit were forcibly taken to residential schools, a system that lasted over 100 years. A student’s experience at the schools could range from a highly positive to a tragically negative experience. The schools are notorious in Canada for having alarmingly high incidences of physical and sexual abuse and high death rates that often went un-checked by Church and state. Currently, Canada is in an era of truth and reconciliation, apology and compensation schemes. Canadian histories and historians are presented with a challenge of how to represent these legacies of the residential schools in national memory. How Canadian historiography recognizes this school system has been polarizing and considerably under- represented in historiography, the media, and wider Canadian culture. This study will aim to review and rebuild historiography of the residential school system in Canada and reflect on how these schools, inside a larger system of settler colonialism, created the nation-state of Canada. Histories of the Indian residential school system and settler colonialism in Canada are part of a Canadian mythology that silently covers the mass removals of Indigenous peoples that accompanied the creation of the modern Canadian state.