University of Wollongong Research Online University of Wollongong Thesis Collection University of Wollongong Thesis Collections 2013 Valuing native plantation monocultures in Australia: the relationship between faunal richness and environment in Eucalypt plantations Beth Mott University of Wollongong Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library: [email protected] Valuing native plantation monocultures in Australia: the relationship between faunal richness and environment in Eucalypt plantations A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree Doctor of Philosophy from The University of Wollongong by Beth Mott, B. Sc. (Hons) School of Biological Sciences 2013 CERTIFICATION I, Beth Mott, declare that this thesis, submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy, in the School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, is wholly my own work unless otherwise referenced or acknowledged. The chapters in this thesis constitute original research carried out by myself during the period of candidature. I was the main contributor of the study design, and was solely responsible for data collection. I wrote the first draft of each manuscript and was responsible for responding to the editorial suggestions of those asked to comment on manuscripts. The document has not been submitted for qualifications at any other academic institution. Beth Mott July 2013. Table of Contents Abstract………………………………………………………………………………… xii Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………… xvi Chapter 1: The conservation value of native tree plantations for wildlife Introduction……………………………….…………………….……………………... 1 Methods………………………………………………………………………..…….... 6 Data extraction……...……………………...….………………………...……. 6 Data Analysis…...……………………………………………………...……..………. 9 Results…………………………………………………………………………………. 13 Discussion……………………………………………………………………..……… 18 Continuing work in context……………………………………………………..……. 23 Chapter 2: The relationship between thermal and structural characteristics in managed forests: implications for microclimate diversity Introduction……………………………….…………………….……………………... 26 Methods………………………………………………………………………..…….... 28 Study area…………………………………..……………………………………... 28 Forest types………………………………………………..…………………………..…. 29 Vegetation structure………………………………………………………………. 34 Thermal environment……………………………………………………………... 35 Data Analysis……………………………………………………………………… 38 Results………………………………………………………..………...……..………. 40 Vegetation structure………………………………………………………………. 40 Environmental temperature……………………………………………………… 41 Age related thermal differences within plantations……………………………. 42 Relating vegetation structure and thermal environment……………………… 46 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………... 47 Vegetation structure………………………………………………………………. 48 i Environmental temperature……………………………………………………… 49 Plantation aging and effects on environmental temperature…………………. 52 Management recommendations and research………………………………… 53 Chapter 3: Faunal response to young afforested and old reforested Eucalypt plantations: do consistent patterns exist across animal taxa? Introduction……………………………….…………………….……………………... 55 Methods………………………………………………………………………..…….... 57 Habitat descriptions………………………..……………………………………... 58 Sampling methodologies………………………………..…………………………..…. 59 Species characteristics..…………………………………………………………. 62 Data Analysis……………………………………………………………………… 63 Results………………………………………………………..………...……..………. 64 Birds………………………………………………………………………………… 66 Herpetofauna……………………………………………………………………… 67 Mammals…………………………………………………………………………... 68 Cross-taxa comparisons of guild structure……………………………………... 69 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………... 71 Patterns of richness………………………………………………………………. 71 Assemblage structure and ecological function………………………………… 73 Birds……………………………………………………………..…………………. 74 Ground fauna……………………………………………………………………… 76 The role of plantations in offsetting species loss………………………………. 77 Chapter 4: The influence of invertebrate resource heterogeneity on small ground-dwelling vertebrates Introduction……………………………….…………………….……………………... 80 Prey availability……………………………………………………………………….. 81 Predators, prey and plantations…………………………………………………….. 82 Methods………………………………………………………………………..…….... 84 ii Invertebrate sampling……………………..…………….………………………... 84 Invertebrate hardness………………………..………..…………………………..…. 86 Relating predators and prey……………………………………………………... 87 Data Analysis……………………………………………………………………… 91 Results………………………………………………………..………...……..………. 92 Insectivores………………………………………………………………………… 92 Invertebrate prey…………………………………………………………………… 94 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………... 97 Predator abundance……………...………………………………………………. 98 Small predators……………………………...………………………………… 98 Medium predators…………………………………………..…………………. 100 Large predators..……………………………………………………………… 101 Grazing…………………………………………….………………………………. 102 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………… 103 Chapter 5: Matrix quality and ground fauna diversity in young plantations Young native plantations in the landscape mosaic…..…….……………………... 105 The matrix and matrix quality.……………………………………………………….. 106 Methods………………………………………………………………………..…….... 110 Habitat descriptions……………………..…………….………………………...... 110 Vegetation structure………………………..………..…………………………..……... 112 Fauna trapping..…………………….…………………………………………….. 113 Data Analysis……………………………………………………………………… 115 Results………………………………………………………..………...……..………. 116 Vegetation structure….……………………………………………….…………… 116 Fauna…….…….…………………………………………………………………… 117 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………... 120 Matrix quality……….……………...………………………………………………. 120 The effects of grazing on plantations.…...………..………………………… 120 Age structure……...…………………………………………………………… 122 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………… 123 iii Chapter 6: The relative roles of structure and thermal environment in determining habitat choice by lizards in young plantations Introduction……………………………….…………………….……………………... 125 Thermal environment and habitat choice……...……………………………….. 126 Thermal physiology of reptiles...………………………..……………………….. 127 Constraints of plantation environments on lizards…………………………….. 128 Methods………………………………………………………………………..…….... 131 Habitat choice enclosures………………..………..…………………………..…. 132 Data analysis….……………………………………………………….. 137 Results……………..…………………………………………………... 138 Feeding study…………………………………………………………………. 143 Data analysis…………………………………………………………... 145 Results…………………………………………………………………. 146 Discussion……………………………………………………………………………... 157 Preferred temperature range and habitat specialization……………………… 157 Substrate preference and habitat choice……………………………………….. 159 Rates of digestion….…………………………………………..…………………. 161 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………… 164 Chapter 7: General Discussion The value of plantations as habitat – an overview.…..…….……………………... 166 This research in context.…………………………………………………………….. 167 Woodland birds.……………………..…………….………………………...... 169 Forest species…………………………..………..…………………………..……... 171 Small mammals..….…………….…………………………………………….. 172 Food availability……………………………………………..………...……..………. 173 Matrix quality…………….……………………………………………….…………… 174 Plantations and the thermal environment………………………………………….. 177 Plantations and climate change…………………………………………………….. 178 The way forward………………………………………………………………………. 179 iv Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………… 183 References………………………………………………………………………….. 185 v List of Tables Table 1.1 Studies examined in this meta-analysis comparing forests and native plantations………………………………………………………..…………….. 7 Table 1.2 Q tests for meta-analyses testing for differences in effect sizes (E+) with changes in species richness and abundance between forests and 16 plantations………………………………………………………………………….. Table 2.1 Vegetation parameters and the methods used to record them from four forest types on the Mid North Coast of NSW………………..…………………. 36 Table 2.2 Results of RMANOVA of change in environmental temperature with forest type …………………...…………………………………….……………….. 43 Table 2.3 Results of ANOVA and regression analyses relating vegetation structure to solar radiation and environmental temperature levels…………… 45 Table 3.1 Means (± 1se) of vegetation variables sampled from replicated 15m2 quadrats in old growth native forest, logged native forest, old and young plantations……………………………………………………………………… …. 59 Table 3.2 Results of ANOSIM analysis comparing assemblage structure in four eucalypt forest types for four vertebrate taxa on the mid north coast of New South Wales, Australia……………………………….…………………………… 66 Table 3.3 ANOVA results comparing the richness, abundance and habitat specialization of birds, mammals and herpetofauna sampled in the study area………………………………………………………..….………..……..…….. 67 Table 3.4 Results of ANOSIM analysis comparing the distribution of feeding guilds in four eucalypt forest types for birds, mammals and herpetofauna…. 71 vi Table 3.5 Summary of the ecological character of birds, mammals, reptiles and frogs in eucalypt plantations on the mid-north coast of New South Wales….. 75 Table 4.1 Mean gape size and prey length category used by each predator species sampled…………………………………………………………………… 88 Table 4.2 ANOSIM results testing for changes in small medium and large insectivore abundance in forests and plantations…….. ………………………. 93 Table 4.3 Results of χ2 analyses and associated pairwise comparisons for changes in the frequency of preferred, available and unavailable prey between forest types ……………………………………………………….…….. 95 Table