MASTER THESIS Titel der Master Thesis / Title of the Master’s Thesis „ Is there a legal gap in the prohibition of the threat or use of nuclear weapons? “ verfasst von / submitted by Maksin Orepic Mag.iur. angestrebter akademischer Grad / in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Advanced International Studies (M.A.I.S.) Wien 2017 / Vienna 2017 Studienkennzahl lt. Studienblatt A 992 940 Postgraduate programme code as it appears on the student record sheet: Universitätslehrgang lt. Studienblatt Internationale Studien / International Studies Postgraduate programme as it appears on the student record sheet: Betreut von / Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Gerhard Loibl When they shell the telephone building in Madrid it is all right because it is a military objective. When they shell gun positions and observation posts that is war. If the shells fall too long or too short that is war too. But when they shell the city indiscrimi- nately in the middle of the night to try to kill civilians in their beds it is murder. - Ernest Hemingway Acknowledgments First and foremost, I would like to thank Alyn Ware for inspiring me to choose this thesis topic and for conveying to me not only his much valuable knowledge but also his endless enthusiasm for nuclear disarmament to which he dedicated his life. I also need to thank Rebecca Johnson for the time she took for sharing her very much ap- preciated opinions and information that underpinned my research and understanding of the topic. Secondly, I would like to use this opportunity to thank the Office of Legal Affairs (OLA) of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) for awarding me with the opportunity to do the internship with their office which allowed me to gather so much valuable knowledge and first- hand experience with the main actors in the non- proliferation regime. Furthermore, I thank Ionut Suseanu, Senior Legal Officer from the IAEA’s Safeguards and Non-proliferation Department of Legal Affairs Office, for his expertise and guidance in researching and developing this thesis. I thank my friends for all the patience and understanding for my unavailability for the past few months. I thank Irma, for making all these late evenings in the library easier. I also thank Hash, for showing me how important is to be passionate, dedicated and very, very persistent in reaching the goal. Finally, I thank my family, for always push- ing me towards making my dreams come true and foremost, I thank Alexander, for being my biggest support in life and for each day of love and strength without which I would not be where I am right now. Table of Contents 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. - 1 - 1.1. Purpose and Significance of the study .............................................................................. - 1 - 1.2. Literature review .............................................................................................................. - 3 - 1.3. Research Question ........................................................................................................... - 9 - 1.4. Theoretical approach ..................................................................................................... - 10 - 1.5. Structure and methodology ............................................................................................ - 11 - 2. Concept of lacunae and permissibility of non liquet (in international law) ...... - 12 - 2.1. (None) existence of gaps in the law ................................................................................ - 13 - 2.2. (Im)permissibility of non liquet in international law ...................................................... - 13 - 3. Capabilities and effects of nuclear weapons ................................................... - 15 - 3.1. Nuclear weapons’ power today ...................................................................................... - 18 - 4. Legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons under international law .......... - 19 - 4.1. International Humanitarian Law ..................................................................................... - 19 - 4.1.1. Early initiatives ........................................................................................................................... - 20 - 4.1.1.1. St. Petersburg Declaration 1868 ...................................................................................... - 20 - 4.1.1.2. The 1899 and 1907 Hague Conferences .......................................................................... - 20 - 4.1.1.3. Geneva Gas Protocol 1925 .............................................................................................. - 22 - 4.1.1.4. Geneva conventions 1949 ............................................................................................... - 22 - 4.1.1.5. Additional Protocols I and II of 1977 to the Geneva Conventions 1949 ......................... - 23 - 4.1.2. Article 2(4) and 51 of the UN Charter ......................................................................................... - 25 - 4.1.3. International customary law ................................................................................................ - 26 - 4.1.4. Status of use or threat to use nuclear weapons under international humanitarian law ........... - 26 - 4.2. Disarmament / Non-proliferation / Arms Control Law ........................................... - 29 - 4.2.1. Nuclear Weapon Free Zones ...................................................................................................... - 29 - 4.2.1.1. Antarctica: the Antarctic Treaty (1959) ........................................................................... - 29 - 4.2.1.2. Outer sPace: the Outer Space Treaty (1967) and the Moon Treaty (1979) ..................... - 30 - 4.2.1.3. Seabed: the Seabed Treaty (1970) .................................................................................. - 30 - 4.2.1.4. Latin America and the Caribbean: the Treaty of Tlatelolco (1967) .................................. - 31 - 4.2.1.5. South Pacific: Treaty of Rarotonga (1985) ....................................................................... - 32 - 4.2.1.6. South-East Asia: Treaty of Bangkok (1995) ...................................................................... - 33 - 4.2.1.7. Africa: The Treaty of Pelindaba (1996) ............................................................................ - 33 - 4.2.1.8. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... - 34 - 4.2.2. Legal status of other weapons of mass destruction .................................................................. - 35 - 4.2.2.1. The Biological Weapons Convention (1972) ................................................................... - 35 - 4.2.2.2. Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) ........................................................................... - 36 - 4.2.2.3. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... - 37 - 4.2.3. Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) .................................................................................................... - 37 - 4.2.4. ComPrehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) ....................................................................... - 38 - 4.2.4. Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) ...................................................... - 39 - 4.2.4.1. History ............................................................................................................................. - 39 - 4.2.4.2. Overview ......................................................................................................................... - 40 - 4.2.4.3. Nuclear disarmament and Article VI of the NPT .............................................................. - 41 - 4.2.4.4. Strengths and weaknesses of the NPT regime ................................................................ - 42 - 4.3. International Law of Human Rights ................................................................................ - 43 - 4.3.1. The Charter of the United Nations ............................................................................................. - 44 - 4.3.2. Universal Declaration of Human Rights ...................................................................................... - 45 - 4.3.3. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ................................................................... - 46 - 4.3.4. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide ............................... - 47 - 4.3.5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. - 48 - 4.4. Environmental Law ......................................................................................................... - 48 - 4.4.1. Additional Protocol I of 1977 to the Geneva Convention of 1949 ............................................. - 49 - 4.4.2. Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (ENMOD) ...................................................................................................... - 50 - 4.4.3. Stockholm Declaration ..............................................................................................................