SHIFTING CULTIVATION TO SETTLED AGRICULTURE: AGRARIAN TRANSFORMATION AND TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIZORAM Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Social Work C. Lalengzama Department of Social Work Mizoram University Tanhril - 706004 Aizawl, Mizoram 2016 MIZORAM UNIVERSITY February, 2016 CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the thesis ‘Shifting Cultivation to Settled Agriculture: Agrarian Transformation and Tribal Development in Mizoram’ submitted by C. Lalengzama for the award of Doctor of Philosophy in Social Work is carried out under my guidance and incorporates the students’ bonafide research and this has not been submitted for award of any degree in this or any other University or Institute of learning. This is being submitted to the Mizoram University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Social Work. Date : 12th February, 2016 Place : Aizawl, Mizoram (Prof. KANAGARAJ EASWARAN) (Prof. KANAGARAJ EASWARAN) Head Research Supervisor Department of Social Work Department of Social Work Mizoram University Mizoram University Aizawl- 796004 Aizawl- 796004 i DECLARATION Mizoram University February, 2016 I, C. Lalengzama, hereby declare that the subject matter of this thesis is the record of work done by me, that the contents of this thesis did not form basis of the award of any previous degree to me or to the best of my knowledge to anybody else, and that the thesis has not been submitted by me for any research degree in any other University/ Institute. This is being submitted to the Mizoram University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Social Work. Date : 12th February, 2016 Place : Aizawl, Mizoram (C. LALENGZAMA) Research Scholar Department of Social Work Mizoram University Aizawl- 796004 (Prof. KANAGARAJ EASWARAN) (Prof. KANAGARAJ EASWARAN) Head Research Supervisor Department of Social Work Department of Social Work Mizoram University Mizoram University Aizawl- 796004 Aizawl- 796004 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First of all I would like to thank the Almighty for giving me the opportunity and health to complete Ph.D. course. I owe a deep sense of gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Kanagaraj Easwaran, Head of Department of Social Work, Mizoram University, who always had confidence in me and motivate me to complete my work. His valuable guidance and his mighty scholarly touch help me in every stage of the study which was coupled with his unreserved and encouraging attitude for me that I could present this thesis. I wish to take this opportunity to express my heartfelt thanks for his untiring help which was always there in a countless number of ways. I also want to thank my family for their support and understanding. My acknowledgement would not be completed without mentioning the names of my parents Mr. C. Vanlaltluanga and Mrs. Lalthasiami for their support and endless prayer. I also want to dedicate this thesis to them. I also thank my wife Vanlalhmangaihzuali Fanai for all her support and motivation during my research. I am also indebted to the farmers and leaders in the villages of Lungsen, Tawipui South, Leite and Muallianpui for their cooperation and willingness to share their information while collecting data. I really cherish their efforts in the process of study to elicit the livelihood and living conditions of farmers to be able to represent the whole Mizoram I thank the Department of Social Work, Mizoram University for giving me the opportunity to study and the support rendered to me in every stage of my Ph.D. course. Dated Aizawl the 12th February, 2016 (C. LALENGZAMA) iii CONTENT Chapter: Page No. Certificate i Declaration ii Acknowledgement iii Content iv - v List of Tables vi List of Figures vii List of Abbreviations viii - ix I INTRODUCTION 1 - 32 1.1. Shifting Cultivation in North Eastern Region of India 1.2. Shifting Cultivation in Mizoram 1.3. Overview of Literature 1.4. Statement of the Problem 1.5. Objectives 1.6. Hypotheses 1.7. Chapter Scheme II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 33-100 2.1. Literature on Shifting Cultivation 2.2. Literature on Agrarian Change 2.3. Literature on Tribal Development III FIELD SETTINGS AND METHODOLOGY 101-140 3.1. The Setting: Profile of the Study Area 3.2. New Land Use Policy of Government of Mizoram 3.3. Methodology 3.4. Limitations of the present study IV SOCIAL STRUCTURAL BASES OF CULTIVATORS 146-156 4.1. Demographic Structural Bases 4.2. Familial Structural Bases 4.3. Social Structural Characteristics 4.4. Economic Structural bases iv V AGRARIAN STRUCTURE AND TRANSFORMATION 161-194 5.1. Nature of land Possession 5.2. Ownership of livestock 5.3. Cropping pattern 5.4. Tools used in cultivation 5.5. Input use 5.6. Perception on ecological consequences 5.7. Agrarian Transformation VI TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT: LIVELIHOOD AND LIVING CONDITIONS 204-221 6.1. Patterns of Tribal Livelihood and living condition 6.2. Patterns of Living Conditions 6.3. Tribal Livelihood and living condition 6.4. Agrarian Transformation and Tribal Development VII AGRARIAN CHALLENGES AND NEW LAND USE POLICY 227-243 7.1. Challenges faced by farmers 7.2. New Land Used Policy in Mizoram VIII SOCIAL DYNAMICS OF AGRARIAN TRANSFORMATION - AND DEVELOPMENT 249-265 IX CONCLUSION 266-301 9.1. Summary Findings 9.2. Conclusion 9.3. Suggestions APPENDICES Bibliography x - xxv Household Interview Schedule xxvi - xxx Village Interview Schedule xxxi - xxxii v LIST OF TABLES Table Page Name of Tables No. No. 4.1 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents 157 4.2 Familial Characteristics of the Respondents 158 4.3 Social Characteristics of the Respondents 159 4.4 Economic Characteristics of the Respondents 160 5.1 Pattern of Land Possession: No. of Plots, Area and Duration 195 5.2 Source of Land 196 5.3 Pattern of Distribution of Land across Size of Land Holding Classes 196 5.4 Pattern of Livestock Ownership 197 5.5 Cropping Pattern: No. of Farmers 197 5.6 Cropping Pattern: No. of Crops per Farmer 198 5.7 Cropping Pattern: Area under Cultivation 198 5.8 Cropping Pattern: Purpose of Cropping 199 5.9 Pattern of Tools Used in Cultivation: No. of Farmers Using 200 5.10 Pattern of Tools Used in Cultivation: No. of Tools Used 201 5.11 Pattern of Input Use in Cultivation: Frequency of Use 202 5.12 Perceived Ecological Consequences of Shifting Cultivation 203 5.13 Agrarian Transformation: Zero Order Correlation Matrix 203 6.1 Pattern of Physical Capital Endowment: Housing and Amenities 222 6.2 Pattern of Financial Capital Endowment 222 6.3 Pattern of Social Capital 223 6.4 Pattern of Annual Household Income 223 6.5 Table Pattern of Monthly Household Expenditure 224 6.6 Indicators of Tribal Development: Zero Order Correlation 225 6.7 Agrarian Transformation and Tribal Development 226 7.1 Problems Faced by Farmers 244 7.2 New Land Use Policies: No of Beneficiaries and Name of Trade 245 7.4 Reason of not Receiving and Expectation 246 7.3 NLUP: Year of receiving NLUP Financial Assistance 247 7.5 NLUP: Ways of utilisation of Financial Assistance 247 7.6 NLUP: Value of Assistance 248 7.7 NLUP: Impact on Household 248 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page Name of Figures No. No. 3.1 Geographical Map of India 141 3.2 Geographical Map of Lunglei District 141 3.3.1 Social Map of Muallianpui 142 3.3.2 Seasonal Diagram of Muallianpui 142 3.3.3 Services and Opportunities Map of Muallianpui 142 3.4.1 Social Map of Lungsen 143 3.4.2 Seasonal Diagram of Lungsen 143 3.4.3 Services and Opportunities Map of Lungsen 143 3.5.1 Social Map of Tawipui South 144 3.5.2 Seasonal Diagram of Tawipui South 144 3.5.3 Services and Opportunities Map of Tawipui South 144 3.6.1 Social Map of Leite 145 3.5.2 Seasonal Diagram of Leite 145 3.5.3 Services and Opportunities Map of Leite 145 vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AAY Antyodaya Anna Yojana AISM Agriculture Input Survey Mizoram ANOVA Analysis of Variance APL Above Poverty Line BPL Below Poverty Line BSNER Basic Statistics of North Eastern Region DAC Department of agriculture and Cooperation FGD Focus Group Discussion GDP Gross Domestic Product GOI Government of India GOM Government of Mizoram HDI Human Development Index HYV High Yielding Variety ICEF India Canada Environment Facility KM Kilometer LPG Liquid Petroleum Gas LSC Land Settlement Certificate MHIP Mizo Hmeichhe Insuihkhawm Pawl MNF Mizo National Front MNREGS Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme MUP Mizo Upa Pawl NABARD National Bank of Agriculture for Rural Development NCIP National Crop Insurance Programme NEPED Nagaland Environmental Protection and Economic Development viii NER India North Eastern Region, India NERCORMP North-Eastern Region Community Resource Management Project NGO Non Governmental Organisation NLUP New Land Use Policy PHC Public Health Centre PHE Public Health Engineering PLP Periodic Land Pass PMKSY Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal RKVY Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana SGDP State Gross Domestic Product SHGs Self Help Groups SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences ST Scheduled Tribe TV Television UPC (M) United Pentecostal Church (Mizoram) UPC (NEI) United Pentecostal Church (North East India) VC Village Council YMA Young Mizo Association ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The present study attempts to assess the impact of agrarian transformation from shifting cultivation to settled agriculture among the tribals in Mizoram. Shifting cultivation also known as Jhum or Swidden agriculture has been viewed as one of the challenges to tribal development in India over many decades. According to the tenth five year plan, shifting cultivation has remained as one of the unresolved issues of planning for tribal development in India (GOI, 2014). Historically, the word agriculture has been used synonymously with the word farming.