25 YEARS OF FREEDOM AND THE ROMA PEOPLE JAGIELLONIAN UNIVERSITY PRESS 25 YEARS OF FREEDOM AND THE ROMA PEOPLE JAGIELLONIAN UNIVERSITY PRESS REVIEWER prof. dr hab. Tadeusz Paleczny COVER DESIGN Jadwiga Burek TRANSLATION, TRANSCRIPTION, AND PROOFREADING Alicja Bednarska, Katarzyna Ciurapińska, Jadwiga Jarczyk, Maciej Jarczyk, Sławomir Kapralski, Małgorzata Kołaczek, Dawid Leszczak, Raf Uzar Th e project “Direction: Future. 25 Years of Freedom and the Roma People” was implemented by the Dialog-Pheniben Foundation and was fi nanced with the support of the European Commission in the framework of the Europe for Citizens Programme. Th e European Commission support for the production of this publication does not constitute an endorsement of the contents which refl ects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein. © Copyright by Sławomir Kapralski, Małgorzata Kołaczek, Joanna Talewicz-Kwiatkowska & Jagiellonian University Press First edition, Kraków 2018 Th is publication or any part of it may not be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods and may not be stored in any informatic system without the prior written permission of the publisher. ISBN 978-83-233-4525-1 ISBN 978-83-233-9886-8 (e-book) Jagiellonian University Press Editorial Offi ces: ul. Michałowskiego 9/2, 31-126 Krakow Phone: +48 12 663 23 80, Fax: +48 12 663 23 83 Distribution: Phone: +48 12 631 01 97, Fax: +48 12 631 01 98 Cell Phone: +48 506 006 674, e-mail: [email protected] Bank: PEKAO SA, IBAN PL80 1240 4722 1111 0000 4856 3325 Contents Introduction. Th e Genesis of the “Roma Issue” and the Transnational Roma Movement Márton Rövid ........................................................... 7 Chapter 1. Between Nazism and Communism: Th e Origins of the International Roma Movement ................................................. 39 Chapter 2. Diff erent Roads to One Goal? – Roma and Th eir Mobilisation in the Last 25 Years .......................................................... 75 C hapter 3. 25 Years of Freedom and the Roma People – Interviews with Romani Leaders ............................................................................. 93 Karel Holomek ......................................................................................... 95 Ágnes Daróczi .......................................................................................... 105 Stanisław Stankiewicz ............................................................................. 111 Roman Kwiatkowski ............................................................................... 123 Gejza Adam .............................................................................................. 131 Margareta Matache ................................................................................. 145 Tímea Junghaus ....................................................................................... 155 Orhan Galjus ............................................................................................ 161 Grattan Puxon ......................................................................................... 167 Romani Rose ............................................................................................ 175 Soraya Post ............................................................................................... 183 Chapter 4. Roma Movement: Its Past, Present, and Future, as Seen by Romani Leaders ................................................................................. 191 Literature ....................................................................................................... 219 About the Authors ........................................................................................ 229 Márton Rövid INTRODUCTION The Genesis of the “Roma Issue” and the Transnational Roma Movement Over the past two decades, in the wake of the post-communist transition, the emergence of Romani activism has been an important development accompany- ing political changes in Central and Eastern Europe. As well as the emergence of Romani associations, international NGOs have been increasingly involved in the struggle against the discrimination of Roma. A special microcosm, specialised in the so-called “Roma issue” has developed, comprising non-governmental and intergovernmental organisations, expert bodies, foundations, and activists. Th is text discusses the emergence of the transnational Roma movement and the genesis of the “Roma issue” in international politics. In the framework of a historical overview, the main actors speaking on behalf of Roma are pre- sented, from the medieval Gypsy Kings to the contemporary European Roma and Traveller Forum. First, the controversial issue of the identity of the Roma is discussed. Far from being a purely ethnographic problem, it has a direct and profound impact on the issue of political representation. Next, the origins of Romani activism are outlined, focusing in particular on the World Romani Congresses. Th e second part examines the emergence of the “Roma issue” in international politics. Th ree developments which opened up political opportunity structures and contributed to the emergence of a transnational advocacy network are analysed: the increasing migration of Roma, the inadequacy of a minority rights regime, and the changing role of the EU. Th e fi nal part discusses the contemporary struggle for recognition and self-determination, studying key organisations and their manifestos. Particular attention is given to the emergence of the notion of a non-territorial nation and the quest for legitimacy. 8 Direction: Future. 25 Years of Freedom and the Roma People 1. Who are the Roma? Several scholars and activists argue that Romani people form a stateless, dispersed nation, potentially numbering 9 to 12 million people from all over the world and trace their origins (based on linguistic evidence) to the Indian Subcontinent.1 It is assumed that Roma left India in several waves, beginning around 1000 AD, and crossed the Bosporus into Europe in the late 13th century.2 However, some scholars and activists dispute the assertion that Romani people constitute such a diaspora and argue that certain allegedly Ro- mani groups neither belong to nor identify with the Roma nation.3 It is debated – for instance – whether Gitano, Kale, Manouche, Sinti, and Traveller groups belong to the Romani diaspora. Academic defi nitions and conceptions permeate political and civic activism. Th e roots of the nation-building project, unifying various ethnic groups under the label “Roma,” can be traced back to the First World Roma Congress held in 1971 near London. Delegates from Western, Central and Eastern Europe, as well as Asia and North America, agreed on the dissemination of the term “Roma” to replace such, typically pejorative, appellations as cigány, cikan, Zigeuner, tzigane, zingaro.4 It is diffi cult to assess the success of this nation-building. On the one hand, transnational forms of Romani solidarity have emerged; on the other, (sub-) group diff erences remain important, even within one village. However, the majority of (non-Roma) society is generally not aware of those diff erences.5 1 Nicolae Gheorghe (1997), Th e Social Construction of Romani Identity. In: Th omas Acton (ed.), Gypsy Politics and Traveller Identity. Hatfi eld: University of Hertfordshire Press; Will Guy (2001), Romani Identity and Post-Communist Policy. In: Will Guy (ed.), Between Past and Future: Th e Roma of Central and Eastern Europe. Hatfi eld: University of Hertfordshire Press; Ian Hancock (2002), We Are the Romani People. Ame sam e Rromane džene. Hatfi eld: University of Hertfordshire Press. It should be noted that there are alternative ethnomythologies; for instance, some communities trace the roots of Roma to Egypt. 2 Th e fi rst evidence of a Romani presence in Europe is from 1283 in a document from Constantinople referring to taxes collected from “the so-called Egyptians and Tsigani.” 3 Paloma Gay y Blasco (2002), Gypsy/Roma Diasporas: Introducing a Comparative Perspective. “Social Anthropology” Vol. 10, No. 2; Judith Okely (1997), Some Political Consequences of Th eories of Gypsy Ethnicity. In: Alison James, Jenny Hockey, Andrews Dawson (eds.), Aft er Writing Culture. London: Routledge; Wim Willems, Leo Lucassen (2000), Gypsies in the Diaspora? Th e Pitfalls of a Biblical Concept. “Histoire Sociale/Social History” Vol. 33, No. 66; Michael Stewart (1996), Th e Puzzle of Roma Persistence: Group Identity Without a Nation. In: Th omas Acton, Gary Mundy (eds.), Romani Culture and Gypsy Identity. Hatfi eld: University of Hertfordshire Press. 4 All of them are derived from the Greek term athinganos meaning ‘an outcast’. 5 For instance, in Hungary, very few gajo (non-Roma) are aware of the fact that three diff erent Roma communities live in their country: Romungro (speaking only Hungarian), Vlax Roma (speaking both Romani and Hungarian) and Boyash (speaking Hungarian and an old dialect of Romanian). The Genesis of the “Roma Issue” and the Transnational Roma Movement 9 To further complicate matters, the group of people who identify them- selves as “Roma” does not usually overlap with the group stigmatized as “cigány,” “tsigane,” etc. In general, the number of people perceived as Roma is much higher than the number of people who self-identify as such (in the context of sociological