This document is downloaded from DR‑NTU (https://dr.ntu.edu.sg) Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Media and a culture of peace : Japanese case Kawano, Noriyuki. 2000 https://hdl.handle.net/10356/93663 Downloaded on 06 Oct 2021 11:56:08 SGT ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library Paper No. 7 ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library Media and a Culture of Peace: Japanese Case by Noriyuki KAWANO Research Assistant, Graduate School for International Development and Cooperation, Hiroshima University, JAPAN E-mail: [email protected] 1. Country Background a. Area and population Japan consists of the four main islands of Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu and about 3000 small islands including the Nansei, or Ryukyu island chain. In term of political divisions, it consists of 47 prefectures. Thirty-four of these are in Honshu, 7 in Kyushu, and 4 in Shikoku. The remaining 2 are the island of Hokkaido, all of which is treated as one prefecture, and Okinawa prefecture, which occupies the major portion of the Nansei Islands. Most Japanese, however, think of their country in term of the regional divisions. Their eight regional divisions are shown in the Map 1. 1 ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library Map 1 Eight regional Divisions of Japan The population of Japan is approximately 126,500,000. The people of Japan consists of 99 % Japanese; the remaining one percent consists of the Ainu, Koreans, Chinese, and other foreigners. "l b. Religion Religious life in Japan is rich and varied, with a long history of interaction among a number of religious traditions. Most of the individual features of Japanese religion are not unique; the distinctiveness of Japanese religion lies in the total pattern of interacting tradition. Many traditional Japanese beliefs and practices harken back to prehistoric customs, and most of these form the core of SHINTO, the only major religion indigenous to Japan. Indian Buddhism, the Chinese contributions of Confucianism and Taoism, and, much later, Christianity were introduced to Japan from the West. All these foreign traditions have undergone significant transformations in a process of mutual influence with the native tradition. (Campbell 1993: 1251) 2 ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library Religion in modern Japan has undergone gradual and significant changes throughout Japanese history. After the remarkable changes in national life of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, religion changed even more drastically. (Campbell 1993: 1252) During the Edo period, both Shinto and especially Buddhism became more highly formalized, and the still vital folk traditions tended to attract more of the attention and enthusiastic participation of the people. In the 19th century, popular movements formed around pilgrimage associations and charismatic leaders. Such groups often expanded to form the so-called New Religions. Until 1945 the government controlled religion closely, but new religious movements continued to arise and expand, and after 1945 they became the most conspicuous development of the religious scene. With urbanization and centralization, folk customs generally and folk religion in particular declined. Social mobility, especially immigration to cities, tended to weaken both local ties and family relationships, in turn impinging upon organized religion. (Campbell 1993: 1252) A significant event for religion during the Allied Occupation of Japan (1945-52) was the enactment of complete religious freedom. Technically, there had been freedom of religion since the CONSTITUTION OF THE EMPIRE OF JAPAN OF 1889, but in actuality government control was so stringent that it had been almost impossible to organize religious groups and propagate religious freedom meant that any religious group could now organize independently under its own auspices and be exempt from taxes. This resulted in the proliferation of hundreds of new religions and the Buddhist denominations. (Campbell 1993: 1252) Currently, it can be said that religions are not very important to young people. Most have no interest in religion, in particular, they pay no attention to the differences among them. For example, for a couple to hold their wedding in a church, even though the family of the bridegroom may be Shinto and that of the bride Buddhist, is neither a rarity^ in Japan nor a problem for either family. According to the Encyclopedia of Contemporary Words, about 92 % believe in Buddhism and/or Shinto. However, as mentioned above, this number can provide no insight into the discussion of religion in Japan, since most Japanese have no interest in religion. In other words, there is no war or conflict concerning religion in Japan. 2. Understanding Peace in Japan a. Peace in Japan According to Takeshi Ishida (1968), the word, "peace" in each culture and each country has different meanings. Moreover, Ishida indicates that the meaning of "peace" can be ambiguous within one culture. For example, the meaning of the Japanese word "Heiwa (peace)" diverges greatly between different population groups. The meaning components of "Heiwa" for students are "no war", "no atomic 3 / ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library bomb", "love or happiness", "no nuclear arms race", "freedom", and so forth (Matsuo 1985: 8-10). On the other hand, the meaning components of "Hiewa" used by Japanese prime ministers in the post­ war era are "world", "international society", "nation", "Asia", "economic", "prosperity", "international cooperation", "diplomacy" and so on (Kawano 1999: 33). Prime ministers of the postwar Japan frequently have used the Japanese word "heiwa" in order to appeal to the Japanese public and recruit their sympathy and support (Kawano 1999: 41). According to Ishida (1989), the same word was used to justify war in prewar Japan. Therefore, we must observe closely the differences in meaning among all levels of people. b. Culture of Peace The concept of peace culture also has various meanings. According to Article 1 of the Declaration and Programme of Action on a Culture of Peace of RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY in the United Nations, the concepts of peace culture are as follows: A culture of peace is a set of values, attitudes, traditions, and modes of behaviour and ways of life based on: (a) Respect for life, ending of violence and promotion and practice of non-violence through education, dialogue and cooperation; (b) Full respect for the principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of States and non-intervention in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any State, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and international law; (c) Full respect for and promotion of all human rights and fundamental freedoms; (d) Commitment to peaceful settlement of conflicts; (e) Efforts to meet the developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations; (f) Respect for and promotion of the right to development; (g) Respect for and promotion of equal rights and opportunities for women and men; (h) Respect for and promotion of the right of everyone to freedom of expression, opinion and information; (i) Adherence to the principles of freedom, justice, democracy, tolerance, solidarity, cooperation, pluralism, cultural diversity, dialogue and understanding at all levels of society and among nations; and fostered by an enabling national and international environment conducive to peace. Within this set of criteria, the ending of violence is clearly the most important. This concept is both very idealistic and quite vague. Indeed, there are many wars, armed conflicts, and the other types of violence occurring today, causing a great deal of loss for a great number of people. The Somali Democratic Republic or Republic of Angola 4 / ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library among countless others, illustrate this fact. However, in the above- mentioned document, the ending of violence is defined as the most important definition of peace culture. From this point of view, this paper will examine the role of the media in promoting a culture of peace. That is, we should consider the role of mass media in Japan in resolving the violence that threatens people in Japan and throughout the world. 3. Role of Media According to The Nihon Shinbun Kyokai (NSK)*2 there are 121 newspapers in Japan and circulation of the newspaper is about 72,400,000. The survey of NSK indicates that over 80 % of all Japanese read newspapers every day. This number suggests that the newspaper has considerable influence upon the people. Moreover, the newspaper influences not only the people but also the government, since the percentage of the people supporting a prime minister can be influenced by reports or articles circulated by the mass media, particularly by newspapers. Although there are many methods to examine the role of the media in promoting a culture of peace, this paper will utilize a survey based on a standard questionnaire prepared by Asian Media Information and Communication Centre (AMIC). This questionnaire appears in the Appendix of this paper.