HUMANITIES INSTITUTE FRENCH LITERATURE – 19th Century Buckner B Trawick, Ph.D. OVERVIEW Historical Background. The “new idealism and optimism whichhad begun about 1890 were strong during the first fourteenyears the new century. The philosophies of Bergson and Nietzsche were enjoying a great vogue. The period was one of colonialexpansion nationalism, and patriotism. Intimations of trouble with Germany appeared as early as 1905, however, when the Kaiser insulted France at Tangiers; there was more friction at Agadir in 1911. Then, in 1914 came the storm which destroyed the German Empire and nearly devastated France. The era between the firstand secondworld wars was one of disillusionment, frustration, and cynicism. Conflicting political and economicbeliefs made for instabilityin the government, and pacificism met opposition from those whofeared the resurgence of German militarism, especially after Hitler‟s rise to power in 1933. Thepragmatic philosophy of WilliamJames and the psychology of SigmundFreud had adeep effect onFrench thought during this Interim period. Like the period following World War I, the years since the end of the last conflict havebeen filled with insecurity, disillusionment,and fear — especially the fear of Russia and of communism. General View of the Literature, Many of thefin du siecle authors continued to produce inthetwentieth century. Naturalism and Symbolism werealready on thedecline, butno new school ofmajor significance tooktheir place. Many minor schools, to be sure, had brief vogues — neoromanticism, Vitalism, Dynamism, Paroxysm,Futurism, and others; but there has been no group of sufficient importance to stamp its name on an epoch. Several general tendencies, however, may be noted. First, during the early years of the century the optimism, nationalism, patriotism, and activism of theera determined the course of much of the literature. At the same time some writers were turning to mysticism and religion. During each world war some good war literature was written, and after each conflict the literature reflected the pessimism and frustration of the nation. During the twentieth century there have been two other persistent trends: (1) increasing interest in the inner workings of the mind, including the subconscious; and (2)increasing social and political bias. One of the latest artistic schools is thesurrealistic one, which (in painting as well as in literature) finds its material in the subconscious. A recent philosophical movement of importance to literature is existentialism, of which Jean-Paul Sartre is the leader. This movement emphasizes the meaninglessness of the universe, the complete freedom of the will, and man‟s ability to create his own destiny. POETRY As has been suggested above, French Symbolism continued well on into the twentieth century, especially in the drama and in poetry. Some of the late Symbolists and also several other poets of the early 1900‟s were inspired by the optimism, idealism, and enthusiasm of the times. After the war of 1914-1918 the tone became more somber, and — as in the other types of literature — disillusionment and pessimism began to take over. Government, politics, social problems, and war became the themes of much French poetry. Vers libre and “poetic prose” were widely used. Once again, although exact categorization is difficult, fourprincipal types of poets may be recognized: nature, religious, philosophical, and war. Nature Poetry Emile Verhaeren (1855—1916). A Belgian poet who wrote in French, “This lover of the open air, of sunshine, wind and rain, is more akin to Wordsworth than any other French poet.”1 He is particularly found of Flemish landscapes and of the bright and beautiful in nature. But he has other loves, too. Like Whitmanand Sandburg, he finds beauty and inspiration in the workaday world of men — the noise of their cities, the smoke of their factories, and the bustle of their commerce. He rejoices “in the vitality and violence of Nature, whether as triumphing in the marts of the world or as inextricably mingled with one‟s personal life and with the beauty of women.”2 His vers libre is unusual, abounding in the alternation of short and long lines. His rhythm has a strongly marked cadence, and he makes frequent use of Symbolistic suggestion and onomatopoeia.His greatest fault, perhaps, is too much violence: “We grow weary of hearing the siren shriek.”3 Nevertheless, his genuine enthusiasm, his energy, his terseness, and his excellent vocabularymake him a significant poet. The most important of his twenty-odd volumes are:The Tumultuous Forces(Les Forcestumultueuses, 1902), The First Affections (LesTendresses premieres,1904), The MultipleSplendor (La Multiple splendeur, 1906), The SovereignRhythms(Les Rhythmessouverains, 1910), andMoving Wheat(Les Bles mouvants, 1913). François Jammes (1868-1938). Jammes sees nature as a manifestation of God, and so he might be classed as a religious as well as a nature poet. He has often been compared with St. Francis of Assisi, and he has been described as “a Faun who has turned Franciscan Friar.”4 “He is essentially the poet of the countryside and of the beasts of the field, enjoying everything that a rural life can offer without ever seeking in nature a reflection of his own moods.”5 His finest volumes areFrom the Angelus of Dawn to the AngelusofEvening(De l'Angelus de l'aube al'angelus du soir, 1898) andThe Griefof thePrimroses(Le Deuil desprimeveres, 1901). Paul Fort (1872-1960). The nature poet of the Ile de France, the region of which Paris is the center. His love for nature is childlike, and like Verhaeren, he rejoices in all that is bright and strong and full of life. He has been called “the most curious example of the poet — at the same time spontaneous and subtle, natural and picturesque, ingenious and wise, opulent and neglected.”6 Though his verses rhyme, he has the strange habit of printing each stanza as if it were a paragraph of prose. His fame rests on his thirty-odd volumes ofFrench Ballads (Ballades françaises) in several series, published after 1912. Religious Poetry Charles Peguy (1873-1914) must be added to those discussed above. Born at Orleans, he grew up in the midst of the cult of Joan of Arc, and to him she became the symbol of both France and Catholicism; he is medieval in his mysticism and devotion. His “my-steries” or quasi-epic poems about Joan are written in rhythmical prose, occasionally cut up into lines, and though repetitious, incoherent, and turgid in parts, have some passages of great sublimity. Philosophical Poetry Paul Valery(1871-1945) was an apostle of Mallarmeand the Symbolists and after Mallarme‟s death stopped writing poetry for nearly twenty years. Encouraged by Andre Gide and by now interested in the sciences, he began afresh about 1916. This poetry is guided by a “mathematical metaphysic” derived in part from Leonardo da Vinci. Valery maintains that “pure poetry” “should „eliminate life‟ in favor of a highly intellectualized conception and presentation. Like Mallarme, he wishes to give a „sens plus pur‟ to the ordinary vocabulary and to symbolize abstruse themes.”7 His Symbolistic conventions and mannerisms—ellipsis, allegory, imperfect syntax—often lead to “uncon-querable obscurity” but some “consider him one of the chief writers of contemporary French literature.”8 Besides his poetry he is well-known for philosophical and literary essays and lectures. War Poetry Louis Aragon ( 1897- ) participated in the surrealistic movement and in communism. In World War II, after being evacuated at Dunkirk he became a leader of the underground resistance. His poetry on war, love, nature, and confidence in the future is, memorable; his poems from the war years are collected in the, volume Aragon, Poet of the French Resistance, 1945. But he was first known for novels, and later ones attempt to portray the whole of French society. 1 Butler, II, 340. 2 Nitze and Dargan, p. 759. 3 Nitze and Dargan, p. 760. 4 Mary Duclaux, Twentieth Century French Writers (London: W. Collins Sons and Co., 1919), p. 98. 5 Butler, II, 338. 6 Florian-Parmentier, quoted (in French) by Nitze and Dargan, p. 745. 7 Nitze and Dargan, pp. 800-801. 8 Wright, p. 895. DRAMA It has already been shown how Maeterlinck carried Symbolism in the drama well on into the twentieth century. Alsobeginning in the old century and continuing into the new were three othertypes of plays ─ the religious play, the “problem” play, and the neoromantic drama. The Religious Play Paul Claudel (1868-1955). Dramatist and diplomat (once ambassador to the United States), Claudel is a follower of Rimbaud and Mallarme in his literary method, which is synthetic associational, accumulative, and elliptical. His plays are written in rhythmical prose, divided into units of short lines or paragraphs. His poetic creed is that the poet alone can comprehend the universe and bring it into communion with the human mind. His theme is “the insufficiency of worldly success and „the beauty and duty of self-mastery.‟. Claudel‟s drama is, in fact, a glorification of activity and effort, as it is also a glorification of the Catholic religion. .”1 Some of his best plays areGolden Head (Tete d‟or,1891),The Exchange (L‟Echange,1894), The Tidings Brought to Mary (L’Annonce faite a Marie, 1912), Agamemnon (1912), and The Hard Bread (Le Pain dur, 1917). He has also written some excellent religious poetry, especially Verses of Exile (Vers d’exil, 1895). The “Problem” Play The influence of the naturalists, of Dumas the Younger ,of Augier, and of Ibsen can be seen in the so-called "problem" play, which flourished from 1890. Authors of this type of literature consider the stage a platform for the discussion of current questions andabuses. The problem dramas fall into two main categories: the psychological and the philosophical or sociological. The most otit standing authors of the psychological drama were GEORGES DE PORTO-RICHE (1849-1930), FRANÇOIS DE CUREL (1854-1928), and HENRI BATAILLE (1872-1922).