A LONG WAY TO GO IRREGULAR MIGRATION PATTERNS, PROCESSES, DRIVERS AND DECISION-MAKING A LONG WAY TO GO IRREGULAR MIGRATION PATTERNS, PROCESSES, DRIVERS AND DECISION-MAKING EDITED BY MARIE MCAULIFFE AND KHALID KOSER Published by ANU Press The Australian National University Acton ACT 2601, Australia Email: [email protected] This title is also available online at press.anu.edu.au A catalogue record for this book is available from the National Library of Australia ISBN(s): 9781760461775 (print) 9781760461782 (eBook) All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. Cover design and layout by ANU Press. Cover photograph adapted from: Sydney, Australia by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, flic.kr/p/cE8dwS. This edition © 2017 ANU Press Contents List of Figures . vii List of Tables . xiii List of Acronyms . xvii Contributors . xix Foreword . xxv Mark Matthews Preface . .. xxix Marie McAuliffe and Khalid Koser 1 . Introduction . 1 Marie McAuliffe and Khalid Koser 2 . Irregular maritime migration as a global phenomenon . 11 Marie McAuliffe and Victoria Mence 3 . Placing Sri Lankan maritime arrivals in a broader migration context . 49 Dinuk Jayasuriya and Marie McAuliffe 4 . The root causes of movement: Exploring the determinants of irregular migration from Afghanistan . 77 Craig Loschmann, Katie Kuschminder and Melissa Siegel 5 . Seeking the views of irregular migrants: Decision-making, drivers and migration journeys . 103 Marie McAuliffe 6 . Leaving family behind: Understanding the irregular migration of unaccompanied asylum-seeking minors . 141 Ignacio Correa-Velez, Mariana Nardone and Katharine Knoetze 7 . Indonesia as a transit country in irregular migration to Australia . 167 Graeme Hugo, George Tan and Caven Jonathan Napitupulu 8 . The process of Sri Lankan migration to Australia focusing on irregular migrants seeking asylum . 197 Graeme Hugo and Lakshman Dissanayake 9 . Applications for asylum in the developed world: Modelling asylum claims by origin and destination . 227 Tim Hatton and Joseph Moloney 10 . Assisted voluntary return and reintegration of migrants: A comparative approach . 255 Khalid Koser and Katie Kuschminder 11 . Media and migration: Comparative analysis of print and online media reporting on migrants and migration in selected countries . 277 Marie McAuliffe, Warren Weeks and Khalid Koser 12 . Environmentally related international migration: Policy challenges . 317 Victoria Mence and Alex Parrinder 13 . Conclusions . 343 Khalid Koser and Marie McAuliffe List of Figures Figure 1.1: Number of irregular maritime arrivals to Australia, 1976–2014 .........................................6 Figure 2.1: Global internet and mobile telephone access ...........18 Figure 2.2: Maritime migrant interdictions since 1982 by fiscal year ...25 Figure 2.3: Number of IMAs to Australia, 1976–2014 ............26 Figure 2.4: Proportion of detected irregular arrivals by region and mode of travel around 2012 ........................27 Figure 3.1: Departures for foreign employment .................51 Figure 3.2: Remittances globally and from the Middle East ........52 Figure 3.3: Sri Lankan diaspora in all OECD countries, 2000, 2006 and 2010. .54 Figure 3.4: Remittances from OECD countries, 2010, 2011 and 2012 ..........................................55 Figure 3.5: Asylum applications submitted in Sri Lanka, 2005–12 ...58 Figure 3.6: Sri Lankan asylum seekers and refugees, 2001–12 ......60 Figure 3.7: Australian visas granted to Sri Lankans, 2009–10 to 2012–13. 61 Figure 3.8: Sri Lankan irregular maritime arrivals, January 2011 – June 2013 .............................63 Figure 3.9: Sri Lankan asylum seekers: Key destination countries, 2007–12 ..........................................64 Figure 3.10: Asylum applications in 43 industrialised countries and IMAs, 2001–12 ..................................64 vii A LoNG WAy To Go Figure 3.11: Reasons why ‘intenders’ want to leave Sri Lanka and enter Australia via boat ............................67 Figure 3.12: Reasons why ‘intenders’ wanted to leave Sri Lanka and why they wanted to enter Australia via boat—sample restricted to ‘economic intenders’ ........................69 Figure 3.13: Intenders’ preferred destinations ...................70 Figure 3.14: Reasons why ‘intenders’ are attracted to destination countries (all countries) ...............................71 Figure 4.1: Migration and return flows ........................84 Figure 4.2: Educational attainment ..........................85 Figure 4.3: Employment status ..............................85 Figure 4.4: Main reason for migration ........................86 Figure 4.5: Main reason for choosing destination ................87 Figure 5.1: Respondents’ links to Australia prior to departing origin country .....................................114 Figure 5.2: Sources of information relied upon when making the final decision that Australia would be the destination ........124 Figure 5.3: Individual and collective decision-making: Decision to leave and decision to travel to Australia ................125 Figure 5.4: Respondents’ travelling companions ................126 Figure 5.5: Assistance respondents received to travel to Australia ...126 Figure 5.6: Number of transit countries by citizenship ...........127 Figure 5.7: Aspects of feeling safe during journey to Australia .....128 Figure 5.8: Experiences of the journey to, and life in, Australia. 130 Figure 5.9: Respondents’ perceptions of living in Australia ........130 Figure 5.10: Respondents’ perceptions of living in Australia by primary language. 131 Figure 7.1: Intending asylum seekers in Indonesia: Arrival location and place of interview of respondents to survey ............168 Figure 7.2: Trajectories of movement of 40 Iraqi asylum seekers, 2008 ......................................172 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 7.3: Encountering border control/immigration authorities when illegally entering Indonesia .......................175 Figure 7.4: Mode of transport used to enter Indonesia ...........176 Figure 7.5: Socialising with local Indonesians ..................181 Figure 7.6: Have you applied for asylum in Indonesia? ...........181 Figure 7.7: Importance of sending remittances to family back in home country ...................................184 Figure 7.8: Preferred countries of resettlement .................186 Figure 7.9: Number of attempts to Australia ..................187 Figure 7.10: Intending IMAs to Australia: Use of an Indonesian local to arrange passage ..............................189 Figure 7.11: Intention to return to home country after resettlement ..192 Figure 7.12: Would they still have migrated if they had known of the difficulties of irregular migration? ..................192 Figure 8.1: Countries of residence of the Sri Lankan diaspora, 2013. 200 Figure 8.2: Sri Lanka: Departures for foreign employment, 1986–2011 .......................................201 Figure 8.3: Settler arrivals from Sri Lanka to Australia, 1959–60 to 2012–13. .204 Figure 8.4: Australia: Sri Lankan–born by visa category, 2003–04 to 2012–13. .205 Figure 8.5: Long-term arrivals from Sri Lanka to Australia, 1959–60 to 2012–13. .206 Figure 8.6: Level of post-school qualification of total Australian and Sri Lankan–born population, 2011 ..................208 Figure 8.7: Refugees and asylum applicants from Sri Lanka, 1985–2012 .......................................210 Figure 8.8: Asylum claims, Sri Lankan nationals, six most important countries, 2006–12 .........................211 Figure 8.9: Number of licensed agencies, 1985–2011 ............213 ix A LoNG WAy To Go Figure 8.10: Departure for foreign employment by district, 2006 and 2011. 214 Figure 8.11: Unauthorised arrivals to Australia, 1989–90 to 2012–13. .215 Figure 8.12: Number of voluntary and nonvoluntary returnees from Australia, 2012–13 .............................216 Figure 8.13: District of origin of irregular maritime migrants, 2012 and 2013. 217 Figure 8.14: Number of people captured while departing to Australia by ethnicity, January 2012 to October 2013 .......218 Figure 9.1: Asylum applications to 38 countries by region of asylum, 1989–2013. 229 Figure 9.2: Asylum applications to Australia and 37 industrialised countries (1997 = 100). 229 Figure 9.3: Composite policy index, Australia and 18-country average. 238 Figure 10.1: Factors determining the decision to return ..........258 Figure 11.1: Thematic coverage of migration in print and online media in selected very high HD countries by volume—key migration themes: Phase I and II .......................287 Figure 11.2: Thematic coverage of migration in print and online media in selected very high HD countries by proportion—key migration themes: Phase I and II .......................288 Figure 11.3: Favourable–neutral–unfavourable coverage of migration in print and online media in selected very high HD countries combined—all migration themes: Phase I and II ...........290 Figure 11.4: Favourable–neutral–unfavourable coverage of migration in print and online media in selected very high HD countries by country—all migration themes: Phase I and II ..........290 Figure 11.5: Favourable–neutral–unfavourable coverage of migration in print and online media in selected very high HD countries— immigration and immigrants theme: Phase I and II .........292 x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 11.6: Favourable–neutral–unfavourable