Principles of Exercise Neuroscience Principles of Exercise Neuroscience Edited by Dawson J. Kidgell and Alan J. Pearce Principles of Exercise Neuroscience Edited by Dawson J. Kidgell and Alan J. Pearce This book first published 2020 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2020 by Dawson J. Kidgell and Alan J. Pearce and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-5813-4 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-5813-7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface ...................................................................................................... xii Dawson J. Kidgell, PhD and Alan J. Pearce, PhD Acknowledgements ................................................................................. xiv Chapter 1 .................................................................................................... 1 The Nexus between Neuroscience and the Science of Exercise Alan J. Pearce, PhD 1. Background ....................................................................................... 1 1.1 The neuroscience of human movement. .......................................... 2 1.2 What is ‘motor control’? How does motor control relate within the larger discipline of exercise science? ........................................ 4 1.3 Motor learning and skill acquisition: similarities and contrasts to motor control ............................................................................... 6 1.4 The challenge of translating neuroscience to exercise science ....... 8 1.5 How to get the best from this book ................................................. 8 References ............................................................................................. 9 Chapter 2 .................................................................................................. 10 Levels of Motor Control Dawson J. Kidgell, PhD and Alan J. Pearce, PhD 2. Background ..................................................................................... 10 2.1 Structural arrangement of the brain contributing to movement .... 11 2.1.1 Structure of the cerebral cortex ............................................ 11 2.1.2 The brain stem ...................................................................... 12 2.2 Transmission of cortical motor signals ......................................... 13 2.3 Motor functions of the cerebellum ................................................ 13 2.3.1 Anatomical and functional organisation of the cerebellum .... 14 2.3.2 Afferent and efferent pathways of the cerebellum ............... 15 2.4 Motor functions of the spinal cord ................................................ 16 2.4.1 Organisation of the spinal cord ............................................. 17 2.5 Types of reflex pathways .............................................................. 18 2.5.1 Skeletal muscle reflexes ....................................................... 19 2.6 Hierarchical organisation of motor control ................................... 21 vi Table of Contents 2.7 Motor units, fibre types, and recruitment physiology ................... 23 2.7.1 The motor unit ...................................................................... 23 2.7.2 Physiological classification and recruitment ........................ 24 2.8 Principle of motor unit recruitment ............................................... 25 2.9 Motor unit synchrony .................................................................... 26 2.9.1 Quantifying the degree of motor unit synchrony .................. 27 2.9.2 Motor unit synchronization and human motor control ......... 27 2.9.3 Motor unit synchronization in upper and lower limb muscles .................................................................................... 28 2.10 Summary ..................................................................................... 29 References ........................................................................................... 29 Chapter 3 .................................................................................................. 32 Techniques Contributing to the Understanding of Neuroscience in Exercise Alan J. Pearce, PhD and Dawson J. Kidgell, PhD 3. Background ..................................................................................... 32 3.1 Electroencephalography (EEG) .................................................... 33 3.2. Magnetoencephalography (MEG) ................................................ 34 3.3 Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) .................................... 35 3.3.1 Single-pulse TMS ................................................................. 36 3.3.2 Paired-pulse TMS ................................................................. 38 3.4 Voluntary activation and neural drive ........................................... 40 3.4.1 Interpolated twitch and VATMS ............................................. 40 3.4.2 H-reflex ................................................................................ 42 3.4.3 V-wave ................................................................................. 44 3.5 Summary ....................................................................................... 45 References ........................................................................................... 46 Chapter 4 .................................................................................................. 53 Principles of Neuroplasticity in Exercise Dawson J. Kidgell, PhD and Ashlyn K. Frazer, PhD 4. Neuroplasticity ................................................................................ 53 4.1 Mechanisms of neuroplasticity ..................................................... 53 4.2 Short and Long-term potentiation ................................................. 54 4.2.1 NMDA receptor activation and synaptic plasticity .............. 54 4.2.2 Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neuroplasticity ......... 55 4.3 Experimentally-induced neuroplasticity ....................................... 56 4.3.1 Transcranial direct current stimulation and neuroplasticity .... 57 4.3.2 NIBS and functional connectivity ........................................ 58 Principles of Exercise Neuroscience vii 4.4 Is the induction of neuroplasticity via NIBS important for motor performance? ................................................................................. 60 4.4.1 Is the magnitude of neuroplasticity and motor performance improvement related to the BDNF polymorphism? ................. 63 4.5 Is homeostatic plasticity important for motor performance? ........ 64 4.6 Use-dependent neuroplasticity ...................................................... 67 4.7 Summary ....................................................................................... 68 References ........................................................................................... 69 Chapter 5 .................................................................................................. 76 Non-invasive Brain Stimulation and Exercise Performance Shapour Jaberzadeh, PhD and Maryam Zoghi, PhD 5. Introduction ..................................................................................... 76 5.1 Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation ....................................... 77 5.2 The mechanisms behind tDCS effects during stimulation (online effects) .............................................................................. 78 5.3 The mechanisms behind tDCS effects after the termination of stimulation ................................................................................ 79 5.4 Montages for application of tDCS: The conventional montage .... 80 5.4.1 HD-tDCS montage ............................................................... 80 5.4.2 Other tDCS montages ........................................................... 81 5.5 tDCS as a stand-alone technique ................................................... 82 5.6 tDCS as a priming technique ........................................................ 82 5.7 Halo sport tDCS device ................................................................ 82 5.8 The effects of tDCS on EP ............................................................ 83 5.9 Ethical considerations for the use of tDCS for enhancement of EP .............................................................................................. 85 5.10 Summary ..................................................................................... 86 References ........................................................................................... 86 Chapter 6 .................................................................................................. 92 Neural Control of Lengthening and Shortening Contractions Jamie Tallent, PhD and Glyn Howatson, PhD 6. Background ..................................................................................... 92 6.1 Shortening and Lengthening Contractions .................................... 92 6.1.1 Benefits of lengthening contractions .................................... 93 6.2 Motor control of lengthening and shortening muscle contractions . 93 6.2.1