10 ASIAN VISUAL CULTURES Khoo, Barker & Ainslie (eds) Southeast Asia on Screen on Asia Southeast Edited by Gaik Cheng Khoo, Thomas Barker, and Mary J. Ainslie Southeast Asia on Screen From Independence to Financial Crisis (1945-1998) Southeast Asia on Screen Asian Visual Cultures This series focuses on visual cultures that are produced, distributed and consumed in Asia and by Asian communities worldwide. Visual cultures have been implicated in creative policies of the state and in global cultural networks (such as the art world, film festivals and the Internet), particularly since the emergence of digital technologies. Asia is home to some of the major film, television and video industries in the world, while Asian contemporary artists are selling their works for record prices at the international art markets. Visual communication and innovation is also thriving in transnational networks and communities at the grass-roots level. Asian Visual Cultures seeks to explore how the texts and contexts of Asian visual cultures shape, express and negotiate new forms of creativity, subjectivity and cultural politics. It specifically aims to probe into the political, commercial and digital contexts in which visual cultures emerge and circulate, and to trace the potential of these cultures for political or social critique. It welcomes scholarly monographs and edited volumes in English by both established and early-career researchers. Series Editors Jeroen de Kloet, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands Edwin Jurriëns, The University of Melbourne, Australia Editorial Board Gaik Cheng Khoo, University of Nottingham, Malaysia Helen Hok-Sze Leung, Simon Fraser University, Canada Larissa Hjorth, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia Amanda Rath, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany Anthony Fung, Chinese University of Hong Kong Lotte Hoek, Edinburgh University, United Kingdom Yoshitaka Mori, Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music, Japan Southeast Asia on Screen From Independence to Financial Crisis (1945-1998) Edited by Gaik Cheng Khoo, Thomas Barker, and Mary J. Ainslie Amsterdam University Press Cover illustration: Still from Santi Vina (Thavi Na Bangchang, 1954), the first Thai feature film shot in colour 35mm Image courtesy of the Thai Film Archive (Public Organization), Thailand Cover design: Coördesign, Leiden Lay-out: Crius Group, Hulshout isbn 978 94 6298 934 4 e-isbn 978 90 4854 190 4 (pdf) doi 10.5117/9789462989344 nur 674 © Gaik Cheng Khoo, Thomas Barker & Mary J. Ainslie / Amsterdam University Press B.V., Amsterdam 2020 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the written permission of both the copyright owner and the author of the book. Every effort has been made to obtain permission to use all copyrighted illustrations reproduced in this book. Nonetheless, whosoever believes to have rights to this material is advised to contact the publisher. Table of Contents Introduction 9 Southeast Asia on Screen: From Independence to Financial Crisis (1945-1998) Gaik Cheng Khoo Section 1 Independence and Post-World War II Filmmaking: Nation-building, Modernity and Golden Eras Introduction: Independence and Post-World War II Filmmaking : Nation-building, Modernity and Golden Eras 35 Mary J. Ainslie 1 A Nation Imagined Differently 37 The Critical Impulse of 1950s Indonesian Cinema Dag Yngvesson and Adrian Alarilla 2 The 1950s Filipino Komiks-to-Film Adaptation during the Studio Era 59 Joyce L. Arriola 3 Pearl Tears on the Silver Screen 75 War Movies and Expanding Burmese Militarism in the Early Independence Years Jane M. Ferguson 4 Gender, Nation and Spatial Mobility in On Top of the Wave, on Top of the Wind 93 Qui-Ha Hoang Nguyen 5 Spectacularity of Nationalism 111 War, Propaganda and Military in Indonesian Cinema during the New Order Era Budi Irawanto Section 2 Key Directors Introduction: Key Directors 131 Gaik Cheng Khoo 6 Two Auteurs in the Indonesian Cinema of the 1970s and 1980s : Sjuman Djaya and Teguh Karya 133 David Hanan and Gaston Soehadi 7 Hussain Haniff and the Place of the Auteur in Popular Malay Cinema 153 Jonathan Driskell 8 Ratana Pestonji and Santi Vina 171 Exploring the ‘Master’ of Thai Cinema during Thailand’s ‘American Era’ Mary J. Ainslie 9 Locating Mike de Leon in Philippine Cinema 193 Patrick F. Campos Section 3 Popular Pleasures Introduction: Popular Pleasures 213 Thomas Barker 10 Nora Aunor vs Ferdinand Marcos 215 Popular Youth Films of 1970s Philippine Cinema Chrishandra Sebastiampillai 11 Transnational Exploitation Cinema in Southeast Asia 233 The Cases of Indonesia and the Philippines Thomas Barker and Ekky Imanjaya 12 Mapping Regional Ambivalence and Anxieties in They Call Her… Cleopatra Wong 255 Sophia Siddique 13 The Boonchu Comedy Series 271 Pre-1990s Thai Localism and Modernity Sasinee Khuankaew About the Authors 291 Index 295 List of Illustrations Illustration 10.1 Aunor performing onstage for The Nora Aunor Show (1968-1971) 220 Image courtesy of Nestor de Guzman (personal collection) Illustration 11.1 Cynthia Rothrock fronts the poster for Memb- ela Harga Diri/Rage and Honor II (Guy Norris and Ackyl Anwari, 1992) 247 Image courtesy of Rapi Films Illustration 12.1 Publicity material for They Call Her… Cleopatra Wong (Bobby A. Suarez, 1978) 262 Image courtesy of Doris Young Introduction Southeast Asia on Screen: From Independence to Financial Crisis (1945-1998) Gaik Cheng Khoo Throughout the last two decades, there has been a substantial increase in scholarly publications addressing Southeast Asian films and filmmaking (Ciecko 2006; Khoo 2007; Khoo and Harvey 2007; Lim and Yamamoto 2011; Ingawanij and McKay 2011; Baumgärtel 2012; Gimenez 2012; Chee and Lim 2015). Much of this is due to the phenomenal resurgence or revival of film production in the 1990s, beginning with art house films by Eric Khoo and Garin Nugroho, to be followed by younger filmmakers post-1998. The resurgence was the result of a combination of economic, sociopolitical and technological developments. First, the Asian Financial Crisis in 1997 affected economies in the region, with Thailand and Indonesia being hit the hardest with the devaluation of their currencies. Recession affected the region in varying degrees. Short of advertising work, Thai directors of commercials such as Pen-ek Ratanaruang and Nonzee Nimitbutr turned their hand to making feature films, many after returning from studying filmmaking abroad, so sparking the beginning of New Thai Cinema. In Indonesia, the financial crisis triggered sociopolitical unrest leading to President Suharto stepping down after 32 years in power. The end of the New Order era saw the end of restrictions and controls including the dismantling of a film apprenticeship hierarchy that had previously made it difficult for anyone in their 20s to be a director. Similar calls for ‘Reformasi’ and mass demonstrations not seen since the 1970s resounded in Malaysia in 1998 with the arrest and detention without trial of Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim. The ending of authoritarianism in Indonesia and the radical spirit of reform infected young filmmakers in Malaysia and Indonesia who, with the added help of new technology (digital cameras), a ‘do-it-yourself’ sensibility and Khoo, Gaik Cheng, Thomas Barker, and Mary J. Ainslie (eds), Southeast Asia on Screen: From Independence to Financial Crisis (1945-1998). Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press 2020 doi: 10.5117/9789462989344_intro 10 GAIK CHENG KHOO willing friends, began to make films cheaply and with fewer mental, infrastructural and bureaucratic restrictions. The film revival coincided with developments in technology and the changing mediascapes (Khoo 2007; Lewis 2009; Hernandez 2012). Shooting on digital cameras and being able to edit on a laptop would herald the salvation of the moribund film industry in the Philippines, Vietnam, Cambodia and a decade and a half later, the nascent inklings of film production activities in Laos (e.g. Mattie Do’s Chantalay, 2012), Myanmar and even Brunei, where two feature films have been produced and a film school, Mahakarya Institute of the Arts Asia, recently established (Brent 2019). At the same time, the digital revolution enabled the rise of independent filmmakers to make low-budget, art house, experimental and personal films. These are predominantly the films that attracted international art house attention and circulated at international film festivals. The international success and prominence of contemporary Southeast Asian filmmakers and auteurs such as Apichatpong Weerasethakul, Lav Diaz, Rithy Panh, Anthony Chen and Garin Nugroho, many of whom have won prestigious awards in film festivals in Europe, Asia and elsewhere, also spawned local and international interest, sparking scholarly curiosity. Filipino independent filmmaker Lav Diaz’s films screened at top tier festivals while awards include the Golden Leopard at the Locarno International Film Festival in 2014 for From What Is Before, the Alfred Bauer Prize at the 66th Berlin International Film Festival in 2016 for A Lullaby to the Sorrowful Mystery, and the Golden Lion at the 73rd Venice International Film Festival for The Woman Who Left in 2016. Thai art cinema auteur Apichatpong Weeresethakul and Singaporean filmmaker Anthony Chen have both won top prizes at the Cannes Film Festival. Apichatpong