water Article Multi-CriteriaArticle Hydro-Economic Decision Tool for Rejuvenating Multi-Criteria Hydro-Economic Decision Tool for Rejuvenating CommunityCommunity Irrigation Irrigation Tanks in Tanks Rural in India Rural India Nicholas A Charles 1, Mahadev G. Bhat 1,*, Ramachandra Bhatta 2, Krishna M. Hegde 3 and Ganapati V Hegde 4 Nicholas Charles 1 , Mahadev G. Bhat 1,* , Ramachandra Bhatta 2, Krishna M. Hegde 3 and Ganapati V. Hegde 4 1 Earth and Environment Department, Florida International University, MM Campus, Miami, FL 33199, USA; [email protected] Earth and Environment Department, Florida International University, MM Campus, Miami, FL 33199, USA; 2 College of Fisheries,nchar042@fiu.edu Mangalore 575002, India; [email protected] 2 3 Private Farmer, Bhairumbe,College of Sirsi Fisheries, 581405, Mangalore Karnataka, 575002, India; India; [email protected] [email protected] 3 4 Department of MinesPrivate andFarmer, Geology, Bhairumbe, Government Sirsi of 581402, Karnataka, Karnataka, Bangalore India; 560001, [email protected] India; [email protected] Department of Mines and Geology, Government of Karnataka, Bangalore 560001, India; [email protected] * Correspondence:* [email protected]: bhatm@fiu.edu Abstract: RisingAbstract: water scarcityRising waterin agri scarcityculture has in agriculture been a major has concern been a majorworldwide. concern As worldwide. resource As resource managers seek managersto address seek this toissue, address Integrated this issue, Water Integrated Resources Water Management Resources (IWRM) Management has become (IWRM) has become a widely accepteda widely sustainability accepted paradigm. sustainability The purpos paradigm.e of this The study purpose is to of evaluate this study restoration is to evaluate al- restoration ternatives of irrigationalternatives tanks of by irrigation applying tanks multi-cr by applyingiteria and multi-criteria probabilistic and benefit–cost probabilistic analysis benefit–cost for a analysis for a rural watershedrural in India. watershed We incorporate in India. We the incorporate principles the of principleslocal-IWRM, of local-IWRM, namely, hydrological namely, hydrological bal- balance, ance, efficiency,efficiency, equity, stakehol equity, stakeholders’ders’ involvement, involvement, and uncertainty. and uncertainty. We use Wethe use mixed-method the mixed-method ap- approach of proach of data datacollection, collection, including including remotely remotely sensed sensed hydro-ecological hydro-ecological data, data,walk-through walk-through field fieldob- observations, servations, focusfocus groups, groups, and andhousehold household surveys. surveys. The study The study region region produces produces a large a percent large percent of run- of runoff water off water (i.e., about(i.e., about 67% 67%of the of total the totalprecipitation) precipitation) which which can canbe partially be partially captured captured to sustain to sustain irri- irrigation tanks. gation tanks. TheThe majority majority of of the the tanks tanks in in the the st studyudy area area do do possess possess modera moderatete to to high high irrigation irrigation potential yet Citation: Charles, N.A.; Bhat, M.G.; potential yet remainremain in in poor poor conditions. conditions. A A propos proposeded lift lift irrigation irrigation scheme scheme with with a a 75% 75% or or more more in- increase in water Bhatta, R.; Hedge, K.M.; Hedge, G.V. Citation: Charles, N.; Bhat,crease M.G.; in wateravailability availability couldcould returnreturn fromfrom ₹ 1.231.23 to to ₹ 1.731.73 on on every every Indian Indian rupee rupee (₹ () invested,) invested, in in addition to Multi-Criteria Hydro-Economic Bhatta, R.; Hegde, K.M.;addition Hegde, G.V. to otherother socio-ecological socio-ecological benefits. benefits. The Theincr increaseease in water in water availability availability could could lead leadto future to future crop area Decision Tool for Rejuvenating Multi-Criteria Hydro-Economiccrop area expansion,expansion, which which comes comes with with a high a high pric pricee tag. tag. Therefore, Therefore, using using additional additional water water on on the the existing crop Community Irrigation Tanks in Decision Tool for Rejuvenatingexisting crop areaarea can can be be just just as as economically economically viable viable as as water-induced water-induced crop crop expansion. expansion. A A coordi- coordinated effort on Rural India. Water 2021, 13, 1594. Community Irrigation Tanksnated in effort Rural on thethe partpart ofof locallocal agenciesagencies andand waterwater usersusers isis necessarynecessary forfor efficientefficient andand equitableequitable useuse of incremental https://doi.org/10.3390/w13111594 India. Water 2021, 13, 1594.of incrementalhttps:// waterwater thatthat comescomes fromfrom anyany restorationrestoration effortsefforts inin thethe studystudy areaarea oror elsewhere.elsewhere. doi.org/10.3390/w13111594 Academic Editor: Krishna Paudel Keywords: IWRM;Keywords: irrigationIWRM; tanks; irrigation agriculture; tanks; multi-cr agriculture;iteria; probabilistic multi-criteria; benefit–cost probabilistic analysis; benefit–cost analysis; Academic Editor: Krishna Paudel Received: 13 April 2021 runoff; India runoff; India Accepted: 30 May 2021 Received: 13 April 2021 Published: 5 June 2021 Accepted: 30 May 2021 Published: 5 June 2021 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu- 1. Introduction1. Introduction tral with regard to jurisdictional The growing human population puts increasing pressure on water demand. Against Publisher’s Note: MDPI staysThe neutral growing human population puts increasing pressure on water demand. Against claims in published maps and institu- a fixed or declining supply, the increasing demand makes the water scarcity problem acute. with regard to jurisdictionala fixed claims or in declining supply, the increasing demand makes the water scarcity problem tional affiliations. published maps and institutionalacute. The affil- InternationalThe International Water Management Water Management Institute Institute predicts predicts that by 2025 that approximately by 2025 approximately 78% of the world’s population will face some degree of water scarcity. Developing countries, iations. 78% of the world’s population will face some degree of water scarcity. Developing coun- especially those with fast-growing populations, are facing water shortage problems more tries, especially those with fast-growing populations, are facing water shortage problems than ever. Agriculture is the single largest user of global freshwater, accounting for 70% of Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Li- more than ever. Agriculture is the single largest user of global freshwater, accounting for withdrawals (up to 90% in growing economies), and therefore, water shortage will have censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. 70% of withdrawals (up to 90% in growing economies), and therefore, water shortage will serious implications for food production and might force some of those countries to rely This article is an openCopyright: access article© 2021 byhave the authors.serious implications for food production and might force some of those countries to on food imports [1]. Water demand in developing countries is projected to be 27% higher distributed under theLicensee terms and MDPI, con- Basel,rely Switzerland. on food imports [1]. Water demand in developing countries is projected to be 27% in 2025 than in 1995, while the actual consumption of irrigation water is expected to fall ditions of the CreativeThis Commons article is At- an openhigher access article in 2025 than in 1995, while the actual consumption of irrigation water is expected short of this demand [2]. tribution (CC BY) licensedistributed (http://crea- under theto termsfall short and of this demand [2]. Ironically, the water crisis in agriculture is not solely due to declining water avail- tivecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).conditions of the Creative CommonsIronically, the water crisis in agriculture is not solely due to declining water availa- ability. More than 50% of the water extracted for agriculture is lost due to evaporation Attribution (CC BY) licensebility. (https:// More than 50% of the water extracted for agriculture is lost due to evaporation and creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ and wastage [1]. Both public and private water extraction and irrigation systems suf- 4.0/). fer significant inefficiencies, resulting in sub-optimal use of this scarce natural resource. Water 2021, 13, 1594. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13111594 www.mdpi.com/journal/water Water 2021, 13, 1594. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13111594 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water Water 2021, 13, 1594 2 of 25 Water wastage triggers more extraction. Excessive and inefficient allocation of water to agriculture and other sectors also compromises water available for the environment and the overall ecosystem health [3]. Additionally, access to irrigation water has not always been equitable in that the benefits of water resource investments in agriculture have not reached all producers in a fair manner [4,5]. Therefore, there is a growing interest in sustainable management approaches as a means to alleviating water scarcity and wastage and promoting agriculture development. 1.1. IWRM Approach to Managing Agricultural Water Many developing countries have embraced Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) as a sustainable strategy for managing their water resources [6,7]. The Global Water Partnership defines IWRM as a process that “promotes the coordinated development and